From the 1860s onward, for about 30 years, the most popular and exciting slogan in the United States was: “Go West! Go West! To the West, to the West!” Western lands were vast and waiting to be settled, and there was gold to be found.

In the mid-to-late 19th century, Americans kept moving west. Some could not afford farmland in the East and hoped to claim land in the West. New immigrants from abroad, seeking a fresh start, could easily obtain land there. In 1862, the U.S. Congress passed the Homestead Act, granting all U.S. citizens and immigrants applying for citizenship the right to claim government land. Each person could obtain 65 hectares of land. If they built a house and farmed for five years, they would gain full ownership, paying only a $10 fee.

Challenges of Farming

Getting land was easy, but farming was not. The Great Plains had no trees for building houses. Fuel for heating and cooking was scarce. Water was limited, and the climate could be harsh—sometimes months went by without rain, destroying crops. Winters were extremely cold.

By the early 1870s, railroads had crossed the West, bringing wood, firewood, and coal, solving many problems. New technologies helped, too. Deep-well drilling machines and pumps brought water to the surface, and some pumps were powered by windmills.

In 1874, the barbed wire was invented, stopping cattle from trampling crops. New farming equipment could plow the prairie. To earn a living, farmers had to grow large quantities of a single crop, devoting all their energy to wheat or corn.

Successes and Struggles of Western Settlers

Farmers did well in years with abundant rain, harvesting wheat and corn. Much of the grain was shipped to Europe. But transportation costs to markets were high. Railroads owned large warehouses, charging farmers high storage fees. Imported goods faced tariffs, sometimes as high as 60%.

Farmers could not demand government intervention individually. They formed local social and cultural organizations called Granges, organizing cooperatives to buy farm equipment directly from factories at lower prices. The Grange gradually became a national farmers’ movement, lobbying for legislation to limit railroad rates and grain storage fees. Railroads resisted, suing in local courts, but eventually lost, with the case reaching the U.S. Supreme Court.

In 1876, the Supreme Court ruled that states could regulate railroad rates, and any property serving the public interest must accept public regulation. Farmers won some concessions, and railroads lowered certain transportation fees.

Over time, many farmers withdrew from the Grange as their economic situation improved. Within a few years, the national Grange lost most of its members.

Transportation and Communication Challenges

Before the railroads, transporting goods between East and West relied entirely on wagons and ox carts. In 1855, Russell, Majors, and Waddell formed a transport company to deliver government supplies to soldiers in the West. Starting with 500 wagons, within three years, they had 3,500 wagons and 40,000 oxen.

In the 1850s, mailing letters across the country was extremely difficult. Ships carried mail from New York to San Francisco twice a month. Stagecoaches ran once a month from St. Louis, Missouri, to California.

The federal government decided to deliver mail to California twice weekly overland, contracting a “land mail service” company. Mail traveled by train or ship to St. Louis, then by horse-drawn carriage across a 4,000 km southern route through Arkansas, Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, finally reaching Los Angeles, California in 24 days. Carriages carried four passengers, but the journey was dangerous due to potential Native American raids, and few traveled this route.

The fastest route from Missouri to California was the Pony Express. Horses carried mail, with stations every 24 km, delivering letters from California to Missouri in just 10 days. The Pony Express lasted only 18 months. Soon after, the transcontinental telegraph was completed, providing communication that was both faster and cheaper.