When the patriots declared independence, they had never seriously studied how to build a nation afterward. Although they had defeated Britain, they still admired British lifestyles and values; in their minds, everything British was good. Many also considered the British political system the best in the world, even though it was headed by a king who had been their enemy. The vast majority were uncertain about whether a central government should be established after independence, or whether there should even be a sovereign nation; many even opposed it. They saw that, despite Britain’s loss of control over North America, society remained relatively stable and orderly, raising doubts about the necessity of a central government.

After the war, Washington immediately retired to private life, showing no desire to establish a new government or vie for power. Culturally and economically, Americans were deeply linked to Britain, and in their hearts, Britain represented the best form of government in the world.

With Commander-in-Chief Washington resigning and returning home, the United States had no central government—only the intermittently meeting Continental Congress, without permanent institutions to handle affairs. Before the Revolutionary War, Britain had governed from above; after independence, there was nothing but decentralized rule, with each state acting autonomously.

States Maintaining Their Own Armies and Taxes

The thirteen states acted independently, competing with one another. Each state maintained its own army, and nine states had their own navies. They used these armed forces to protect themselves and defend against other states. Virginia, for example, passed legislation allowing it to seize ships that did not pay taxes to Virginia—not ships from Britain or Spain, but from Maryland, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania.

Chaos from Multiple Currencies

By the 1780s, the United States was sliding into disorder, most visibly in its currency. There was no unified currency; people still trusted British pounds and shillings. Although the U.S. dollar had been introduced, its value varied by state: in New York, one dollar was worth 8 shillings, while in South Carolina, it was worth 32 shillings. Coins from France, Spain, and other European countries also circulated in the United States.

Armed Rebellions After Independence: Shays’ Rebellion

After the Revolutionary War, states owed soldiers millions of dollars, and European nations that had supported the United States during the war had become creditors. The U.S. had no national treasury to repay these debts. The debt crisis caused widespread hardship: many people could not pay, lost their property, or were imprisoned. Some militia groups, seeking to help them, disrupted tax collection, intimidated judges, and even burned courthouse buildings.

In Massachusetts, a group led by former officer Daniel Shays attempted to seize weapons and ammunition from the state’s arsenal. Shays’ Rebellion was eventually suppressed, but it caused panic across the country, from north to south, as Americans feared that the violence might continue.