Matteo Ricci (1552–1610)

When Martin Luther died, Matteo Ricci was only six years old, and he could not have heard Luther’s harsh denunciations of the pope. In response to “losing Northern Europe and seeking compensation in Asia,” the pope established the Society of Jesus (the Jesuits) and sent more than a dozen missionaries to Asia; Ricci was one of them.

Ricci first went to India for four years, but the leader of the mission refused to allow Indians to participate in philosophy courses, resulting in little success. He then turned to China, where he discovered Confucius and opened a new path for the development of Catholicism. He studied Chinese with great dedication, created the first Chinese–Portuguese Dictionary, and translated Confucius’ Analects, bringing them to Europe and allowing Europeans to encounter Confucius for the first time.

With the principle of “adaptation first, evangelization second,” Ricci devoted his entire life to his mission. His efforts earned him the warm welcome of the Ming emperor, who even showed willingness to convert. By the time Ricci died, he had become the first foreigner permitted to be buried in Beijing. The emperor granted twenty mu of land, including three hundred rooms, which later became the burial place for hundreds of missionaries who followed.

Preaching in Confucian Robes

Matteo Ricci first wore the clothing of Buddhist monks, and people assumed he was a Buddhist coming from India. Later, after he discovered Confucius, he changed to Confucian scholar’s robes, which made him far more welcome among the Chinese. While in Zhaoqing, he translated Elements of Geometry, bringing geometry into China for the first time. People called him the “Western Confucian scholar.”

Ricci spent six years preaching in Zhaoqing and two years in Shaozhou. The two fellow missionaries who had come with him both passed away one after another, but Ricci continued the mission alone.

Ricci then preached for several years in Nanchang, where he had the opportunity to meet the Prince of Jian’an, giving him access to the upper ranks of the Ming court. In Nanchang he also successfully predicted a solar eclipse, which brought him great fame and earned him recognition as an astronomer. His years in Nanchang laid the foundation for his eventual journey to Beijing.

Ricci later made connections with several high-ranking officials, enabling him to enter Nanjing twice. There he built a church, further paving the way for his eventual audience with the emperor.

Ricci finally obtained the chance to meet the emperor. He presented the emperor with precious gifts, including a chiming clock, the Bible, and the Map of the Ten Thousand Countries, winning imperial favor. This allowed him to remain in Beijing to conduct his mission. Ricci spent ten years preaching in Beijing, gaining about 200 converts—many of whom were leading scholars and officials—thus exerting substantial influence. He remained in Beijing until his death in 1610 at the age of 58.

Translating “Analects”, to identify Confucius’ concept of Tian as identical with “God,”

Matteo Ricci and the Jesuits produced a complete Latin translation of the Analects and brought it to Europe. Paris encountered the Analects for the first time, together with the Doctrine of the Mean, the Great Learning, and other Confucian works, allowing Europe to see Confucianism for the first time.

“The Ricci Rules”

Matteo Ricci believed that the Chinese practices of offering rites to Heaven, to Confucius, and to one’s ancestors did not contradict the Catholic faith. He held that the Chinese concept of Tian was identical with the Christian “God”; what the Chinese called “Heaven” corresponded to the Western personal God. Therefore, he allowed converts to retain the traditional customs of “sacrificing to Heaven,” “ancestor worship,” and “rituals for Confucius.”

Permitting converts to keep these customs and still enter the Catholic Church became known as the “Ricci Rules.” These rules were approved by the Roman Curia and continued in effect until the reign of the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing dynasty. Later, the Spanish faction reported the matter to the Holy See, forcing the practice to stop. It was not until 1939 that the Vatican restored the “Ricci Rules.”

The abolition of these rules was condemned by the Kangxi Emperor as “incomprehensible,” saying:
“In all the world, there is no deity who demands disloyalty or lack of filial piety.” Matteo Ricci was the first successful example, four hundred years ago, of “the compatibility of the Five Traditions.” On December 8, 1939, Pope Pius XII abolished the prohibition against ancestral rites and the honoring of Confucius.

In October 2001, during the commemoration of “The 400th Anniversary of Ricci’s Arrival in Beijing,” Pope John Paul II said: “The greatest contribution of Father Matteo Ricci lay in cultural integration. He enabled Christianity to harmonize successfully with Confucianism. He became a genuine ‘Chinese among Chinese’, astonishing in his ability to immerse himself within Chinese society. He led people to believe in God without harming Chinese culture, and indeed made Chinese culture richer and more complete.”

Following the path of Matteo Ricci: more than 3,000 missionaries went to China in the 19th century.

In the two hundred years after Ricci’s death, some 3,700 missionaries from around the world went to China, more than half of them Americans. Many of them were born in China, because their parents had served as missionaries there; they grew up in China, received their education in the United States, and then returned to China as adults to continue missionary work. Most of them still followed the “Ricci Rules,” rather than the decrees abolishing them—showing that the influence of the “Ricci Rules” revived even two centuries later.

They generally adhered to the principle of “integration first, evangelization second,” dedicating their entire lives to that mission. As a result, both cultural exchange and religious work flourished, greatly expanding the presence of Christianity in China. Guided by the policy of “culture first,” missionaries established numerous Christian universities, secondary schools, and primary schools—such as Lingnan University (later renamed Sun Yat-sen University by the Communist government).

Missionaries also built countless hospitals across China, such as Peking Union Medical College Hospital, still remembered with admiration today. Many well-known hospitals in various regions originally began as missionary hospitals; after 1949, most were renamed, though older generations still recall their earlier names. The “Wenchangsha Hospital” in Foshan, which I visited as a child, was a missionary hospital—its current name is unknown to me. The “Starr Hospital” in Wuzhou, where I also stayed as a child, was an American missionary hospital; its present name is also unknown to me. The “Huaying Middle School” in Foshan, where I studied during childhood, was likewise renamed by the Communist government and is now known as “Foshan No. 1 Middle School.”

President Truman “lost China,” and with it all the missionary schools and hospitals were turned over to the Communist authorities, who renamed them. In the future, the missionary schools and hospitals should have their names restored, to commemorate the contributions of the missionaries.

Following the “Ricci Path”: the distinguished missionary William Martin

William Martin (1827–1916), an American Presbyterian missionary, served in China for sixty-two years (with four years spent outside China). He was a leading figure of the Beijing Tongwenguan (School of Combined Learning) and was regarded as a true “China expert.” He translated Henry Wheaton’s Elements of International Law into Chinese, earning the appreciation of Prince Gong. The Zongli Yamen allocated special funds for its printing and publication.

Ding Shiliang bows to Confucius

In 1898, at the opening ceremony of the Imperial Capital University (Jingshi Daxuetang), Ding Shiliang bowed to Confucius in front of Chinese and foreign guests. Some Westerners of the time regarded him as a traitor for this act. In 1902, the Qing government issued an order reinstating Ding Shiliang as Chief Instructor of Western Studies (equivalent to the university president).

Lin Lezhi — Journalism, Education, Translation, and Explaining Christianity through Confucianism

Lin Lezhi (Andrew John Allen, 1836–1907), a missionary sent to China by the American Methodist Episcopal Mission, worked in China for forty-seven years. He adopted the Chinese name “Lin Lezhi” from the saying, “He who is ignorant of one thing must feel ashamed” (yi wu bu zhi, ru zhe zhi chi).

Throughout his life he translated books, ran newspapers, and founded schools. Over sixteen years, he translated more than ten major Western works—such as History of Europe and Rome, Universal History, and other texts on geography and the natural sciences—thus introducing Western knowledge to China.

In Shanghai he founded the Universal Circulating Herald (Wanguo Gongbao), which he edited for thirty-four years until his death. The paper introduced Western scientific and cultural knowledge—mathematics, physics, chemistry, astronomy, geography, biology, medicine, railways, steamships, and figures such as Newton and Darwin. It became a major window through which China viewed the West, influencing readers like Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao, Sun Yat-sen, Lin Yutang, and even the Japanese Emperor.

Lin Lezhi carefully studied both Confucianism and Christianity and concluded: “Confucianism emphasizes the Five Relationships; Christianity also values the Five Relationships.” Confucian ren corresponds to biblical love; yi corresponds to righteousness (“the Lord delights in righteousness”); li corresponds to the biblical command to treat others with propriety; zhi corresponds to wisdom (“wisdom is more precious than pearls”); xin corresponds to faith (“the just shall live by faith”). Thus, Lin Lezhi argued that Confucius and Jesus were alike, and that Confucianism and Christian doctrine were fundamentally in harmony.

In 1882, he founded the Sino-Western College (Zhongxi Shuyuan) in Shanghai. Its curriculum gave equal weight to Chinese and Western learning: half a day studying the Confucian classics, poetry, and couplets; half a day studying Western subjects—mathematics, physics, chemistry, astronomy, geography, navigation, surveying, and translation.

The college operated for thirty-two years and trained thousands of students. Students read the Bible and participated in morning prayers, but were not required to become Christians. The school was widely respected in Shanghai.

In 1876, the Qing government granted Lin Lezhi the rank of a fourth-class official in recognition of his achievements. In 1905, he returned to the United States and received a special audience with President Theodore Roosevelt.

Theology Doctor Hunter Corbett: Founder of More Than Forty Primary Schools

Hunter Corbett (1835–1920), a missionary sent to China by the American Presbyterian Mission, worked in China for 56 years. Following the principle “culture first, evangelization second,” he founded over forty primary schools across Shandong, and baptized more than 3,000 believers during his life.

Corbett and his wife also established a hospital with over 300 rooms, 90 beds, and complete modern equipment. He founded the first museum in Shandong in Yantai. Corbett died in Shandong in 1920, and thousands from all directions joined his funeral procession.

John Leighton Stuart and the Founding of Yenching University

John Leighton Stuart (1876–1962), born in Hangzhou to American missionary parents, grew up in the United States before returning to Hangzhou as a missionary. In 1919, he was appointed president of Yenching University in Beijing. At that time, the university had only about 100 students and a handful of teachers—smaller than a modern primary school.

Stuart raised funds with great difficulty, searched for a new campus, and surveyed the outskirts of Beijing. He ultimately selected the site opposite Tsinghua University—the location of today’s Peking University campus. He traveled to the United States more than ten times to raise money, and with crucial support from a major aluminum magnate—who donated two million dollars—plus other funds totaling 2.5 million dollars, he hired American architects to design the campus in traditional Chinese palace style rather than Western style.

After the campus was completed, he invited prominent Chinese and foreign scholars to teach and established cooperation with Harvard University, forming the “Harvard-Yenching Institute.” In 1941, after the attack on Pearl Harbor, when the U.S. and Japan went to war, the Japanese detained Stuart and sent him to a camp in Weifang, Shandong. After the war’s victory, he returned to Yenching as president.

In 1945, during the Chongqing negotiations between Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong, Stuart served as U.S. Ambassador to China and took part in mediating the talks. In 1949, as the U.S. and Chiang Kai-shek lost control of mainland China to the Communist forces, Stuart withdrew to the United States. Mao Zedong later published the famous editorial “Farewell, Leighton Stuart.”

Stuart died in 1962 in poverty and illness. His widow requested that his ashes be interred at Peking University, but the Communist authorities did not approve; they allowed burial only in Hangzhou.

Future: Returning to the “Ricci Path”

In 1979, when the United States established diplomatic relations with the Chinese Communist government, President Carter dealt with Deng Xiaoping while secretly bypassing Congress and abandoning Taiwan. Deng Xiaoping asked Carter what demands he had. Carter requested that “missionaries be allowed to return to China and that Bibles be distributed.” Deng agreed only to “printing Bibles,” but not to “missionaries entering China.” Carter, being accommodating, responded, “All right, all right.”

At that time, Beijing was holding a high-level meeting of 6,000 cadres. The meeting called for “abandoning Mao Zedong,” while Deng proposed the “Four Upholdings.” Because Carter offered slight support for “abandoning Mao,” he felt he had done a great deed. But in the end, Deng neither abandoned Mao nor allowed missionaries to return. Carter still kept saying, “All right, all right,” and in the years that followed visited Beijing annually to pay respect to Deng Xiaoping.

Over the past thirteen years, Xi Jinping has reversed course, restoring policies reminiscent of Mao Zedong and seeking to replace the United States as the world’s leading power—yet lacking public support. Now China is in a precarious moment, and his downfall may be only a matter of time.

In the future, after Xi Jinping falls and China undergoes major change, a new leadership that embraces freedom and democracy will surely allow missionaries to return. The first step will be to restore the missionary heritage suppressed by the Communist government—many schools, hospitals, and cultural institutions whose names were changed—and to restore the honor of the missionaries.

Countries around the world will again be permitted to send missionaries to China, returning to the “Ricci Path”: practicing the effective principles of “culture first, mission second,” and “integration first, mission second,” so that the “Ricci Path” may grow broader and continue to flourish, achieving new accomplishments.