I. Ma Yifu (1883–1967)

Ma Yifu (1883–1967), a modern Confucian master, given name Fu, courtesy name Yifu, was a native of Shaoxing, Zhejiang, born in Chengdu. His father served as the magistrate of Renshou County, Sichuan. At the age of five, he returned to Shaoxing. Ma Yifu was diligent in his studies and had a prodigious memory, often called a child prodigy. At sixteen, he took the provincial examination, ranking first. That same year he married, but his wife died at nineteen. From then on, he devoted himself to scholarship and never remarried.

At the age of twenty, he went to the United States to study, focusing on European literature. He also studied in Germany and Japan, researching Western philosophy and mastering six foreign languages. At twenty-eight, he returned to China and dedicated himself to the study of national learning. During the War of Resistance against Japan, he served as a professor at Zhejiang University. In 1939, he established the Fuxing Academy in Leshan, Sichuan, to teach Confucian learning. In 1953, he became director of the Zhejiang Academy of Literature and History. In 1966, during the Cultural Revolution, his home was ransacked. He pleaded with the Red Guards to leave at least one inkstone to write, but was slapped, filled with sorrow and anger, and died the following year.

Ma Yifu was of high moral character, humble, and proud in spirit. In 1924, when the warlord Sun Chuanfang occupied Zhejiang but was unpopular, Sun personally visited Ma. The family tried to excuse him as being away, but Ma decisively said: “Tell him I am home, yet will not see him.” Sun left in frustration.

In 1939, Ma Yifu ran the Fuxing Academy in Sichuan. He used reverence for Confucius and study of the classics to resist Marxist-Leninist communism. Chiang Kai-shek invited him to Chongqing to discuss the nation. Ma Yifu sought to address the academy’s funding, and advised Chiang: “Only sincerity moves people; only emptiness accommodates things. This is the foundation of governance.” He also said: “Prioritize the nation and the people, abandon old grudges, and unite all parties to resist foreign aggression.” He refused Chiang’s offer to enter politics, displeasing him. Funding remained insufficient; Ma Yifu survived by selling books and calligraphy. Feng Zikai, in Lou Xiang, called Ma Yifu “a Yan Yuan of our times,” living humbly among the ancients, disdainful of worldly affairs. After exploring the vast body of Western knowledge, he returned to ancestral learning, enriching it with insights from Western studies, tirelessly pursuing the Way.

Ma Yifu integrated Chinese and Western scholarship. He interpreted Confucius’ “Six Arts”—ritual, music, archery, charioteering, writing, and mathematics—or “Six Classics”—poetry, history, ritual, music, the I Ching, and Spring and Autumn Annals—as encompassing all modern Western knowledge. Natural sciences align with the I Ching, social sciences with the Spring and Autumn Annals, politics and law with history and ritual, and literature and arts with poetry and music. Western knowledge is governed by three values—truth, goodness, beauty—all contained in the Six Arts: “Poetry and history are supreme goodness, ritual and music are supreme beauty, the I Ching and Spring and Autumn Annals are supreme truth.” He criticized those who blindly worshiped the West and neglected their own cultural treasures, saying: “All methods are contained within the Six Arts; the Six Arts are rooted in the mind; the mind is the foundation of the Six Arts.” Scholarship must start with self-cultivation: “Seek truth within oneself first, learn extensively afterward.”

Ma Yifu synthesized the thought methods of Cheng-Zhu Neo-Confucianism and Lu-Wang’s School of Mind, stating: “Cheng-Zhu and Lu-Wang are not separate paths; their understanding of human nature is the same, only the expressions differ.” He advocated breaking sectarian views: “Investigating things is to exhaust principle; different names may share the same reality.” He said: “Though matters are manifold, they all originate from one mind; mind generates law, mind ceases, law ceases; all actions derive from one mind.” He promoted: “Comprehensive without restriction, thorough without attachment, precise without contamination, untroubled without fixation.” He emphasized “realizing principle, exhausting reason, practicing sincerely,” praising Wang Yangming’s doctrine of unity of knowledge and action. At the Fuxing Academy, he taught the “Four Essentials”: respect, exhausting principle, extensive learning, and practical dedication. He stressed: “Respect is the gateway to virtue, linked to the bloodline of sages.”

Ma Yifu also transcended sectarian divisions among Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism, integrating their philosophies in “harmonious non-obstruction”: “All teachings aim to illuminate the path of human nature. Clouds and moon are the same, mountains and rivers differ yet do not obstruct each other.” Buddhism emphasizes “integration of compassion and wisdom,” Confucianism “unity of benevolence and wisdom”—ideas are closely aligned.

Ma Yifu especially revered the Analects, identifying its three central themes: benevolence, governance, and filial piety, elaborated in his works Great Meaning of the Analects and Great Meaning of the Classic of Filial Piety.

After being persecuted during the Cultural Revolution, Ma Yifu was expelled from his residence in Jiang Zhuang, living in a small alley in Hangzhou. In 1967, he passed away, leaving a final poem at his pillow:

“Riding transformation I rest in ease,
Void allows me to go as I will.
Form and spirit gather and disperse,
Sight and sound all reach tranquility.
Foam dissolves, returning fully to the sea,
Flowers bloom, full on branches.
At the cliff I wave farewell,
The setting sun descends on Yan Zi.”

Hangzhou hosts the Ma Yifu Memorial Hall. In 2013, Zhejiang University established the Ma Yifu Humanities Research Center.

Sayings of Ma Yifu

Knowledge must be experienced by the mind itself, not merely through hearing and seeing; it forms through cultivation of temperament.

Do not pursue rapid transformation; do not pride in wide learning; seek deep mastery.

Cultivate fully; the mind will naturally remain calm, principles naturally clear. Encountering conditions and objects, effort is unnecessary; temperament is bright, principles evident.

Learning originates in thought; reading must exhaust principle; depth enables understanding of the world’s ambitions.

Knowledge comes from seeing and hearing; ability develops from temperament.

Scholarship: “learning” is self-study, “inquiring” is consulting others. Self-study requires self-realization, relying entirely on one’s own awareness.

Be comprehensive without restriction, thorough without mixture, precise without distraction, focused without fixation. Leaving the fundamentals behind is rigidity.

Untroubled and unfixed is understanding essentials; unrestricted and unmixed is understanding classification.

Comprehension flows smoothly, connecting widely without sectarian bias.

Review the old to understand the new; do not consume the past untransformed.

National learning centers on Confucius’ Six Arts. Poetry and history are supreme goodness; ritual and music are supreme beauty; Spring and Autumn Annals and the I Ching are supreme truth.

The Six Arts are rooted in one mind; the essence of the Six Arts lies in the principles the mind possesses.

Those lost ask for guidance; the sick seek a doctor. Learn first, then inquire. Choose a teacher carefully; learn and ask properly, avoiding irrelevant matters.

Even after knowing the vast universe, still cherish the green grass and trees.

II. Xiong Shili (1885–1968)

Xiong Shili (1885–1968), courtesy name Shili, was a leading Chinese philosopher of the 20th century, known for his profound scholarship in Confucian thought. He was born in Zhejiang Province. Xiong pursued studies in classical Chinese learning and deeply engaged with Western philosophy, seeking to synthesize the insights of both traditions.

Xiong Shili’s philosophy emphasizes the unity of the mind and reality. He argued that the principle of “Li” (理) or universal principle is inherent in the mind and manifests through all phenomena. He stressed the cultivation of inner awareness to perceive the moral and natural order, advocating a rigorous self-discipline to attain spiritual and intellectual clarity. Xiong was strongly influenced by the Neo-Confucian tradition, particularly the teachings of Wang Yangming, but he developed a unique system integrating metaphysics, ethics, and epistemology.

During the Republican era, Xiong Shili served as a professor and sought to reform education by incorporating moral cultivation alongside intellectual training. He insisted that philosophy must be grounded in the actual practice of life and not remain a mere abstract exercise.

In the 1930s and 1940s, Xiong Shili taught at various institutions, attracting numerous students who later became influential scholars. Despite political upheavals and the rise of the Communist regime, Xiong remained devoted to his philosophical research and teaching. His work provided a vital link in the revival of Confucian thought in modern China, emphasizing moral self-cultivation as the foundation for societal harmony.

Xiong Shili’s thought centers on the concepts of “Heart-Mind” (心) as the source of all knowledge, the moral principle as the core of human action, and the importance of returning to the original nature of the mind to achieve spiritual enlightenment. He argued that the mind generates the world’s principles and that understanding the mind allows one to comprehend the universe.

Xiong Shili’s writings include New Treatise on the Uniqueness of Principles and numerous essays elucidating the philosophy of Confucian metaphysics and ethics. He emphasized that Confucianism is not merely ritualistic or moralistic but constitutes a complete metaphysical and ethical system capable of addressing the spiritual and social challenges of modernity.

Xiong’s influence persisted through his students and the post-Mao revival of Confucian studies. He is recognized as a central figure in modern Chinese philosophy, bridging traditional Confucian thought with contemporary philosophical discourse.

Sayings of Xiong Shili

To study philosophy is to cultivate the mind; understanding principles is inseparable from self-cultivation.

Reality is generated from the mind; the mind’s clarity manifests the truth of all things.

Moral principle is inherent in every person; recognizing and following it ensures harmony with the universe.

True knowledge arises not from external study alone but from deep reflection and realization of one’s inner nature.

Practice and insight are inseparable; knowing without acting is incomplete, acting without understanding is blind.

The mind is the source of all phenomena; mastery of the mind leads to mastery of the world.

Philosophy must be applied to life; abstraction without practice cannot guide human conduct.

III. Liang Shuming (1893–1988)

Liang Shuming (1893–1988) was a prominent Chinese philosopher, educator, and social thinker of the 20th century, often called “the last Confucian” for his dedication to preserving and revitalizing traditional Chinese thought. He was born in Shandong Province and studied both classical Confucian texts and Western philosophy. Liang sought to apply philosophical principles to social reform, rural reconstruction, and education.

Liang Shuming believed that China’s path to modernization required understanding and transforming the rural society, which he considered the moral and cultural backbone of the nation. He argued that Western models could not be directly applied to China and emphasized reform rooted in Chinese traditions. Liang promoted the “rural reconstruction movement” (乡村建设运动) during the 1930s, encouraging education, moral cultivation, and community development in villages.

Philosophically, Liang Shuming integrated Confucianism, Buddhism, and Western thought. He highlighted the importance of “ethical consciousness” and the cultivation of virtue as the foundation of both individual and societal well-being. He maintained that moral self-cultivation is inseparable from social responsibility, and that true modernization requires spiritual and cultural development alongside economic progress.

Liang emphasized “human nature and self-cultivation” as central to societal transformation. He advocated the study of human psychology, social ethics, and education as tools to improve rural communities, preserve cultural values, and guide political development. His works explored how traditional Chinese philosophy could address the challenges of modernity without abandoning Chinese cultural identity.

During the Republican era, Liang Shuming taught at universities and engaged in public intellectual work. He resisted political extremes and remained committed to education and moral philosophy even under turbulent times, including the Japanese invasion, civil war, and early years of Communist rule.

Liang Shuming’s major works include Eastern and Western Cultures and Their Philosophies, The Philosophy of Life in China, and numerous essays on education, ethics, and social reform. He stressed that philosophy should serve practical life, cultivate moral character, and guide social development.

Liang’s thought is notable for its humanism, moderation, and integration of ethical, educational, and cultural concerns. He promoted a vision of society in which moral and cultural cultivation are as important as material development. His legacy remains influential in modern Chinese philosophy, rural development theory, and the revival of Confucian scholarship.

Sayings of Liang Shuming

True reform must begin with moral self-cultivation; without it, social change is superficial.

Education is the foundation of both personal virtue and social harmony.

Understanding one’s own culture is essential before borrowing from foreign models.

Rural society is the moral and cultural root of the nation; its transformation ensures national renewal.

Human nature, when cultivated, naturally aligns with ethical principles and social order.

Philosophy must guide practical life; theoretical knowledge alone is insufficient.

Cultural identity and ethical awareness are the pillars of true modernization.

Community development arises from mutual responsibility, moral cultivation, and practical action.