I. Han Yu (768–824 CE)

Han Yu, styled Tuizhi, was born in Heyang, Henan (modern Meng County). He later served as Minister of Personnel (Shilang), earning the title “Han Libu,” and is historically honored as Han Wengong. He was a leading advocate of the Classical Prose Movement in the Tang dynasty. Su Dongpo praised him: “His writing revived the decay of eight generations; his doctrine rescued the drowning world; his loyalty challenged rulers’ anger; his courage commanded armies.” Han Yu was also a transmitter of Confucian orthodoxy, asserting Confucius’ and Mencius’ succession in the Confucian line of authority. He influenced Zhu Xi in the Song dynasty to elevate Mencius into the canonized Four Books. Han Yu is recognized as the first among the Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song dynasties. His writing unified literature and moral philosophy, vigorous in spirit and precise in expression.

Han Yu’s family had a bureaucratic background. He was born 150 years after Wenzhongzi (Wang Tong) and lost his mother shortly after birth and his father at age three, growing up under the care of his elder brother. By age seven, he began reading; by thirteen, he could compose essays. He said: “I have always considered the rise and fall of ancient times, and the gains and losses of the present.” At 24, he passed the imperial examinations. By 27, he had petitioned the chancellors three times; at 33, he was appointed Doctor of the National University, and at 34, Inspector of the Imperial Censorate, where he petitioned against drought and famine and criticized the royal family, resulting in demotion to magistrate of Yangshan. He was beloved by the people, who even named children after him.

In 819, when Emperor Xianzong of Tang brought a Buddha relic into the palace for three days of veneration, the public was ecstatic. Han Yu risked imperial wrath by submitting the Memorial Against the Buddha Bone, arguing that ancient sages like Yao, Shun, and Yu lived long without Buddhism and that excessive devotion to Buddhist relics brought disaster, citing Emperor Liang Wu as an example. The emperor was furious, and Han Yu was sentenced to death; Chancellor Pei Du intervened, leading to his exile to Chaozhou: “A memorial to the emperor in the morning, by evening exiled 8,000 li to Chaozhou.”

In Chaozhou, Han Yu governed, promoted education, and freed slaves with his salary. He befriended local monks and was deeply respected. Within a year, the emperor recalled him, sending him to Yichun in Jiangxi, then back to Chang’an to serve in the Ministry of War and eventually the Ministry of Personnel. His boldness against superstition earned him lasting admiration: soldiers said, “If he dared to burn the Buddha relic, how could we dare to break the law?”

Han Yu died at age 56 in Heyang.

Han Yu authored extensively, blending literature with moral instruction. His major works include Yuan Dao (On the Way), Yuan Xing (On Human Nature), Shi Shuo (On Teaching), and Jin Xue Jie (On Learning). He advocated the “restoration of the ancients,” promoting clarity and authenticity over ornate style: “Follow the intent, not the words; remove trite expressions.” His writing was direct, vigorous, and spirited, reflecting his unwavering sense of right and wrong.

Han Yu viewed the Confucian Dao as a continuous transmission from Yao to Shun, Shun to Yu, Yu to Tang and Wu, Wu to Wen and Wu, Wen and Wu to the Duke of Zhou, the Duke of Zhou to Confucius, and Confucius to Mencius, then Xunzi and Yang Xiong. This underscores his belief that Confucian orthodoxy flows uninterrupted from the earliest sages to his own era.

Later generations hailed Han Yu as a teacher for all ages. Su Dongpo said: “A single word of his sets the world’s standard; his literature revived eight generations; his doctrine rescued the drowning world.” Liu Yuxi praised: “An inexhaustible mountain of words, a peak of human learning.” Bai Juyi praised his erudition, literary power, and upright character. Song writers, including Luo Guanzhong and Ye Xie, also lauded his literary and moral contributions. Qian Mu wrote that Han Yu “rejected Buddhism and Daoism to advocate Confucianism, establishing the transmission of the Way, advancing without pursuit of wealth, retiring without seeking immortality, promoting the ancient Way.”

Han Yu’s extant works include 700 essays, compiled in the Han Yu Ji (40 volumes) or Han Changli Ji. His poems appear in the Quan Tangshi in ten volumes.

Han Yu’s Quotes:

Mastery comes from diligence, neglect comes from play; achievement comes from reflection, failure comes from heedlessness.

Look up without shame before Heaven, look down without shame before man, and have no shame before your own heart.

There is order in learning: first the Dao, then technique.

Among many peaks, there must be a main summit.

One is not born knowing; how can one be without doubts? To doubt yet not follow a teacher leaves doubts unresolved.

Enjoy learning in youth; mourn old friends in age.

Ants shaking a great tree are laughable for not knowing their limits.

Formation comes from reflection, ruin from play; mastery comes from diligence, destruction from neglect.

To rectify the mind and make the heart sincere is to act.

To cultivate oneself, first rectify the heart; to rectify the heart, first make the intention sincere.

Only when there is a discerning master does a thousand-mile horse emerge; the horse may exist, but the master is rare.

One is not born knowing; who is without doubt?

Unblocked, it flows; not stopped, it moves.

Reading suffers from lack of quantity, thinking from lack of clarity; knowing from lack of study, practice from lack of action.

The word “follow” has ruined countless heroes.

The teacher transmits the Dao, imparts knowledge, and resolves doubts.

Learning never suffices; mastery comes from diligence.

Even a famous horse is shamed in the hands of a slave; it dies in the stable without fulfilling its destiny.

No matter rich or poor, old or young, the Dao resides where the teacher is.

All things cry out when deprived of balance.

The mountain of books has paths; diligence is the road. The sea of learning has no shore; effort is the boat.

Broad love is called benevolence; proper action is called righteousness; together they are the Dao.

The Way of the former kings, applied to people, leads to love and fairness; applied to the mind, to harmony and balance; applied to the state, it is universally proper.

II Cheng Hao (1032–1085) and Cheng Yi (1033–1107)

Cheng Hao (1032–1085) and Cheng Yi (1033–1107), brothers of the Northern Song dynasty, were foundational figures of Neo-Confucianism and key predecessors whose teachings were later systematized by Zhu Xi.

In their teenage years, the Cheng brothers became disciples of the Neo-Confucian scholar Zhou Dunyi (1017–1073), who taught at the Lotus Cave Academy in Lushan, Jiangxi. Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi were among Zhou Dunyi’s most outstanding students. Later, the brothers established academies in Luoyang, Henan, to teach and disseminate their ideas.

Cheng Hao proposed that “Heaven is Principle,” “the mind itself is Heaven,” and “by fully realizing it, one knows one’s nature.” He regarded li (principle) as the fundamental origin of the universe and the source of knowledge and truth. Since Heaven operates ceaselessly, human learning should focus on “recognizing benevolence.” In his On Recognizing Benevolence (Shiren Pian), he argued that a truly benevolent person is harmoniously integrated with all things, and that righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and trustworthiness are all expressions of benevolence.

Cheng Yi emphasized that the purpose of education is to cultivate sages: “The learning of a gentleman must reach the sage; anything that does not reach the sage is to be discarded.”

The two brothers had distinct personalities: Cheng Hao was mild and lively, teaching in Luoyang for more than a decade, earning the admiration of his students, who described his teaching as “like being bathed in spring breeze.” Cheng Yi was serious and strict, teaching for over thirty years; Zhu Xi later recognized Cheng Yi as the orthodox authority in the Cheng school. Cheng Yi had a solemn, upright appearance, described as a “face of a Confucian scholar.”

Cheng Hao lived to 53, and Cheng Yi to 74. Emperor Ningzong of Song posthumously granted Cheng Hao the title “Chun” (Pure) and Cheng Yi the title “Zheng” (Righteous).

The Cheng brothers articulated the principle: “When there are no human desires, all is Heavenly Principle” and “Preserve Heavenly Principle, extinguish human desires.” Here, “human desires” refer to excessive greed, not ordinary needs such as food or sexual desire. They believed that unchecked greed obscures the original mind and harms the Heavenly Principle inherent in human nature.

III Zhu Xi (1130–1200)

Zhu Xi (1130–1200) was born 300 years after Han Yu, in Wuyuan, Jiangxi, though his family originated from Longxi, Fujian. His courtesy name was Zihe, and he was also known by the pseudonym “Ziyang.” He was the preeminent synthesizer of Neo-Confucianism in the Song dynasty, serving as prefect of Nankang in Jiangxi and Zhangzhou in Fujian, as well as a regional inspector in eastern Zhejiang. He was also appointed as a court scholar (Shidu) to lecture for Emperor Ningzong of Song.

From an early age, Zhu Xi taught in a simple hall he named Huian, which the Song Emperor Lizong later honored with the official title “Kaoting Academy.” His school of thought became known as the Ziyang School. Zhu Xi was a student of Li Tong, a disciple of Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi, and inherited the Cheng brothers’ Neo-Confucian philosophy, ultimately consolidating it into a comprehensive system. He compiled and standardized the Four Books—The Great Learning, The Doctrine of the Mean, The Analects, and Mencius—as required reading for the imperial examinations. His commentary, Collected Annotations on the Four Books, became the official exam standard.

Zhu Xi’s ancestry traced back to Zhu Jingze, a Tang dynasty minister and historian. At age five, Zhu Xi began schooling, already able to comprehend the Classic of Filial Piety, and inscribed a personal motto over his desk: “If not thus, one cannot become a man of accomplishment.” At eighteen, he passed the provincial examination as a tribute student, and at nineteen he succeeded in the metropolitan examination, embarking on a career of 48 years in official service, including 27 years as a local magistrate. He was ennobled as the founding marquis of Wuyuan, receiving an estate of 300 households.

At age 23, Zhu Xi was appointed county magistrate of Tong’an in Quanzhou, Fujian. There, he promoted ritual propriety and morality, improved local customs, impeached corrupt officials, aided the vulnerable, mediated disputes, reformed the county school system, and established lecture halls and libraries. Zhu Xi regarded the pursuit of Buddhism, Taoist immortality, and superstition as damaging to public morality, wasting national resources and impeding the dynasty’s revival; he therefore advocated “anti-Buddhism, pro-Confucianism, appoint the capable, and govern well.”

At age 33, he was summoned to the imperial court to present three memorials to Emperor Xiaozong of Song: first, to correct the mind and cultivate sincerity, advocating the investigation of principle (gewu zhizhi) and opposing heterodox Buddhism and Taoism; second, to resist foreign incursions; third, to reform internal governance and oppose favoritism toward corrupt ministers. His proposals were not adopted.

At 39, upon his mother’s death, he resigned to return home, building the Hanquan Study to guard her tomb and devote six years to study and writing.

In 1179, Emperor Xiaozong appointed Zhu Xi governor of Nankang, with responsibility over agriculture. Amid severe drought, Zhu Xi organized disaster relief and irrigation works to aid the population. During inspections, he discovered the site of the White Deer Cave Academy (Bailudong Academy), which he restored the following year, appointed himself as head, invited distinguished teachers, replenished books, established school lands, supported poor students, and issued school regulations—considered the earliest formal rules for Chinese academies, establishing the model for educational administration.

Two years later, another famine struck eastern Zhejiang, and the court again tasked Zhu Xi with relief efforts. During nine months in the region, he submitted six memorials denouncing corrupt officials, demonstrating his moral integrity and dedication to public service.

At age 52, Zhu Xi completed the compilation of the Four Books (The Great Learning, The Doctrine of the Mean, The Analects, and Mencius) and continued his Collected Annotations on the Four Books. The following year, he established the Wuyi Study in Wuyi Mountain, attracting students and teaching, while debating the principles of morality, profit, kingship, and hegemony with Chen Liang, defending the Confucian critique.

At age 61, he assumed office in Zhangzhou, reforming administration, abolishing arbitrary taxation, promoting Confucianism, strengthening local customs, impeaching corrupt officials, verifying land records, standardizing taxes, and relieving burdens on the populace. The next year, his eldest son died; he resigned to observe mourning and moved to Jianyang, where he continued his father’s legacy by establishing the Bamboo Grove Study, later receiving imperial recognition as the Kaoting Academy.

In 1194, during the Yao people uprising in Hunan, Zhu Xi was entrusted with pacification efforts, favoring appeasement over military suppression. He also promoted education, supervised governance, reinforced local customs, and expanded the Yuelu Academy, personally teaching students.

Also in 1194, at age 64, Zhu Xi was summoned to serve as imperial lecturer again. He submitted three memorials: first, advocating correct mind and sincere intention; second, urging the emperor to study the classics and investigate principle; third, reporting on the aftermath of the Yao rebellion. He lectured on The Great Learning, emphasizing gewu zhizhi, sincere intention, rectifying the mind, self-cultivation, family regulation, governance, and pacification. His proposals, aimed at restraining imperial power and promoting moral rule, displeased Emperor Ningzong, leading to his removal after only one and a half months. Two years later, he was implicated in the “party restrictions” (dangjin), falsely accused of ten crimes, branded the “leader of pseudo-learning,” and his followers were exiled or imprisoned.

In 1199, afflicted with multiple illnesses, Zhu Xi sensed his impending death and worked intensively on his writings. By the following year, his leg condition worsened, his left eye became blind, and his right nearly so. He redoubled his efforts to complete his works. In spring of that year, he passed away at age 70 amid the political turmoil of the dangjin purges. Approximately one thousand disciples and followers gathered for his burial.

Two years later, Emperor Ningzong issued a decree honoring him posthumously. Twenty years later, Emperor Lizong conferred upon him the title of Grand Master (Taishi) and promoted him to Duke of Xinguo.

Zhu Xi synthesized the Neo-Confucian thought of Zhou Dunyi, Cheng Hao, Cheng Yi, and Lu Jiuyuan. He proposed that li (principle) is the metaphysical foundation of nature and society; every entity has its li, and the ultimate unification of all li is the Taiji (Supreme Ultimate), which embodies the principle of all things.

In effect, Zhu Xi’s concept of li is equivalent to the Dao discussed by Laozi. He refers to it as tianli (heavenly principle), or the Way of Heaven, not in the mundane sense of “reason” or “logic.” Following Laozi’s dictum, “The Dao that can be spoken is not the eternal Dao,” Zhu Xi similarly states, “Principle that can be formulated is not eternal principle.” Heavenly principle is invisible, boundless, and infinite. The practice of worshiping Heaven predates Zhu Xi, observed since the time of Yao, Shun, Yu, King Wen, and the Duke of Zhou; Confucius also discussed Heaven. Zhu Xi clarified and systematized the concept of tianli, identifying its unity with the Taiji.

However, the Taiji is abstract; Zhu Xi did not claim that a deity controls it. He stopped short of theology, keeping Confucianism subordinate to human virtue rather than equating it with God, unlike Buddhism or Taoism. Even if followers called it “Confucianism” as a religion, it lacked a god; Confucian temples honor humans, not Heaven. Worship of Heaven (God) remains the essential path.

Zhu Xi also proposed that qi (vital force) constitutes all things. Qi generates life, divides into yin and yang, moves as yang, rests as yin, and disperses through the Five Phases (metal, wood, water, fire, earth) to form all phenomena. Qi is the material, concrete aspect, while li is metaphysical.

In humans, li manifests as human nature. The Doctrine of the Mean states: “What Heaven has conferred is called nature.” Some later misinterpreted Zhu Xi’s injunction to “preserve heavenly principle and extinguish human desires” as inhumane. In fact, this concept predates Zhu Xi; the Book of Rites notes: “To humanize things is to extinguish heavenly principle and exhaust human desire,” meaning that evil acts violate Heaven’s principle. Without selfish desire, Heaven’s principle shines clearly. The sages’ teachings are meant to illuminate heavenly principle and restrain excessive desires.

By “extinguishing human desires,” Zhu Xi referred to excessive, improper, or socially disruptive desires—not natural, necessary desires such as hunger or sexual appetite. He opposed desires that transgress propriety or ethical norms. Mencius likewise acknowledged that eating, drinking, and sexual activity are natural human desires. Properly understood, Zhu Xi’s concept of tianli and extinguishing improper desires represents the moral core of Confucianism. In the Ming and Qing dynasties, Zhu Xi’s Neo-Confucianism became the orthodox school. Emperor Kangxi described it as “clear, precise, and perfectly just.” Emperor Qianlong stated: “Following Mencius’ teachings cultivates a gentleman; following it governs the state; straying from it brings disorder; self-cultivation and governance of others reform society.”

American historian Will Durant (1885–1981) remarked: “Zhu Xi was the savior of Confucianism; in the 12th century, he organized the essence of Confucius into a systematic philosophy that guided China for 700 years.” Zhu Xi’s influence ranks only after Confucius. Neo-Confucianism later spread to Korea and Japan, where it had profound practical effects.

In his youth, Zhu Xi studied Buddhism but abandoned it upon encountering his Neo-Confucian teacher Li Tong, embracing Confucianism and worshipping Confucius. He regularly offered sacrifices to Confucius at major events and upon assuming or leaving office. He believed that prayers could affect Heaven but forbade using them for personal profit. He associated freely with monks, composed poetry, and did not discriminate based on sectarian affiliation. He consulted geomancers without superstition and used the I Ching for divination.

Historian Qian Mu praised Zhu Xi: “In ancient times there was Confucius; in recent times, Zhu Xi. No one can rival their brilliance or influence.”

Historian Jin Guantao remarked: “Zhu Xi’s profound contribution was to canonize Confucius and Mencius, systematize Dong Zhongshu’s yin-yang and Five Phases theories, and construct a deeply coherent new system. He corrected weaknesses in Confucian thought, strengthened its authority, and enabled the Song dynasty’s seven-century consolidation of patriarchal hierarchy and centralized control.”

Selected Quotations from Zhu Xi

One must first establish one’s resolve before pursuing learning.

Rise at dawn, clean the courtyard, maintain order inside and out. Lock doors at night and check personally. Be mindful of the effort behind every meal or thread of cloth.

Although ancestors are distant, sacrifices must be sincere; though descendants may be ignorant, classics must be studied. Lead a simple life and teach children with moral guidance. Do not covet wealth or drink excessively.

To fawn before the wealthy is shameful; to act arrogant toward the poor is base.

Bestow help without remembering, receive favors without forgetting. Leave room in all affairs; do not press one’s advantage.

Study with the aim of the sages; serve the state with loyalty. Fulfill one’s role, accept fate, and follow the times.

Daily reflect on oneself; correct faults and strive to improve.

Maintain a broad, open heart; act with integrity and brightness.

Do not think that failing to study today allows you to rely on tomorrow.

Live and learn throughout life.

Without firm resolve, nothing can be accomplished.

Ask the source of the water; clarity comes from its spring.

Advancement in learning depends on reflection; only by thinking can one discern right from wrong.

In learning, nothing precedes the investigation of principle; to investigate principle, one must first read.

Ritual is principle.

Cultivation comes first, understanding next, action follows.

Respect yourself and others will respect you; act arrogantly and others will scorn you.

The essence of The Great Learning—self-cultivation, family regulation, governance, and pacification—lies in rectifying the mind, sincere intention, and reflection.

Reflection is the foundation of self-cultivation; discerning goodness is the basis of reflection.

Friendships should be based on righteousness.

If a text is not memorized, repeated reading allows memorization; if principles are not precise, careful thought refines them; without resolve, there is no firm foundation.

If sincerity is fully realized and maintained, it becomes the source of all virtues and the root of all actions.

In all matters, be humble and never domineering; arrogance brings disgrace.

The words of the sages are bright and upright. Forget past grievances; such is the measure of a pure mind.