In the 250 years following Confucius’s death, those who inherited his teachings were Zengzi (Zeng Shen, 505–432 BCE), Zisi (Kong Ji, 483–402 BCE), Mencius (Meng Ke, 372–289 BCE), and Xunzi (Xun Kuang, 313–238 BCE). Xunzi is often excluded by orthodox Confucians, yet he should still be counted among those who carried on Confucius’s legacy.

I. Zengzi (505–432 BCE)

Zengzi’s personal name was Zeng Shen, courtesy name Ziyu. He was a native of the State of Lu (present-day Pingyi, Shandong). His father, Zeng Dian, studied under Confucius together with his son; Zeng Dian was one of the Seventy-Two Worthies and was praised by Confucius in the Analects. Zeng Shen was forty-six years younger than Confucius. When Confucius died, Zeng Shen was twenty-seven years old. On his deathbed, Confucius entrusted his grandson Kong Ji to Zeng Shen. After the death of Yan Hui, Confucius regarded Zeng Shen as his successor. Zeng Shen became Confucius’s disciple at the age of sixteen, studied diligently, and received the true transmission of Confucius’s teachings. Before his death, Confucius summoned Zeng Shen and said, “Shen, my Way is贯通 by one principle.” Zeng Shen replied, “Yes, Master, your Way consists of loyalty and reciprocity, nothing more.” Confucius personally transmitted the Great Learning (Daxue) to Zeng Shen.

After Confucius’s death, Zeng Shen devoted himself to teaching and compiling classical texts, consistently refusing to enter official service. At the age of thirty-eight, the magistrate of Wucheng invited him to serve as a guest instructor, which he declined. At fifty, the State of Qi invited him to become prime minister. Chu and Jin also invited him to serve as high minister. Zeng Shen declined all such offers.

Zeng Shen compiled and authored the Great Learning, which opens by clearly setting forth the “Three Guiding Principles” (manifesting luminous virtue, renewing the people, resting in the highest good) and the “Eight Steps” (investigating things, extending knowledge, making intentions sincere, rectifying the mind, cultivating the self, regulating the family, governing the state, and bringing peace to the world). It explains in detail: “In ancient times, those who wished to manifest luminous virtue throughout the world first governed their states. Those who wished to govern their states first regulated their families; those who wished to regulate their families first cultivated themselves; those who wished to cultivate themselves first rectified their minds; those who wished to rectify their minds first made their intentions sincere; those who wished to make their intentions sincere first extended their knowledge.” It further states: “The extension of knowledge lies in the investigation of things. When things are investigated, knowledge is extended; when knowledge is extended, intentions become sincere; when intentions are sincere, the mind is rectified; when the mind is rectified, the self is cultivated; when the self is cultivated, the family is regulated; when the family is regulated, the state is governed; when the state is governed, the world is at peace.” Together these form a complete ethical system of self-cultivation, family regulation, state governance, and world pacification.

In The Heavenly Kingdom, Zengzi stated: “The refined vital energy of yang is called spirit; the refined vital energy of yin is called soul. Spirit and soul are the root of all beings.” Zengzi often discussed “Heaven,” further asserting that spirits and deities govern between Heaven and Earth. These spirits are the foundation of all things. This elevated Confucius’s teachings to a supreme, religious level, marking a major leap in Zengzi’s understanding of Heaven, Earth, and the divine.

In the Classic of Filial Piety, Zengzi said: “Of all that Heaven gives birth to and Earth nurtures, human beings are the most noble.” He also said, “Human beings are the finest vital essence of the Five Elements.” Zengzi regarded human beings as precious and emphasized filial piety toward parents, stating: “There are three levels of filial piety: the highest is to honor one’s parents; the next is not to disgrace them; the lowest is merely to provide for them.” Simply providing food, clothing, and shelter is only the most basic level of filial piety; honoring one’s parents spiritually is far more important. Zengzi also said: “Be cautious in handling funerals and remember the distant ancestors; then the people’s virtue will return to sincerity and depth.”

Zengzi took self-cultivation as the foundation, treated others with humility, and was strict with himself. He said: “Each day I examine myself on three matters: In planning for others, have I been disloyal? In dealings with friends, have I been untrustworthy? Have I failed to review what has been passed on to me?” He also said: “A scholar cannot but be resolute and broad-minded; the burden is heavy and the road is long. Taking benevolence as one’s responsibility—is this not heavy? Only with death does it end—is this not long?” Zeng Shen collected records of Confucius’s words and deeds from among his disciples and compiled the Analects, which became the classic record of Confucius’s life and teachings transmitted through the ages, a monumental achievement. Zengzi carried forward Confucius’s Way and paved the way for Zisi and Mencius. He both inherited and developed Confucian thought and is listed as one of the Five Confucian Sages (Confucius, Yan Hui, Zengzi, Zisi, and Mencius).

Zengzi died in 435 BCE at the age of seventy-three and was buried in his hometown.

Selected Sayings of Zeng Shen:

There are three levels of filial piety: the highest is to honor one’s parents; the next is not to disgrace them; the lowest is merely to provide for them.

Each day I examine myself on three matters: In planning for others, have I been disloyal? In dealings with friends, have I been untrustworthy? Have I failed to review what has been passed on to me?

One may be entrusted with the care of an orphan of six chi, or the fate of a state of a hundred li, and yet remain unshakable in the face of great principles.

A scholar cannot but be resolute and steadfast; the burden is heavy and the road is long. Taking benevolence as one’s responsibility, only ending with death.

Be cautious in handling funerals and remember the distant ancestors; the people’s virtue will return to depth.

The gentleman uses culture to make friends, and through friends aids benevolence.

My Way is贯通 by one principle: loyalty and reciprocity.

When a bird is about to die, its cry is sorrowful; when a person is about to die, his words are kind.

II. Zisi (483–402 BCE)

When Confucius was sixty-eight, his grandson Kong Ji was born, courtesy name Zisi. At the time of Zisi’s birth, his father Kong Li had already died of illness. When Confucius passed away, he entrusted his grandson, then under five years old, to Zeng Shen. Zisi studied under Zeng Shen and received the authentic transmission of Confucius’s thought. Zisi wrote twenty-three works in his lifetime, but only six, including The Doctrine of the Mean (Zhongyong), have survived; the rest have been lost. Like his teacher Zengzi, Zisi devoted his life to writing and teaching and refused to serve as an official. Duke Mu of Lu once invited Zisi to become prime minister, but Zisi politely declined, placing the promotion of his teachings above official position.

Zisi’s authorship of The Doctrine of the Mean was a great contribution to Confucian learning. By the Song dynasty, it was included by the Confucian master Zhu Xi as one of the Four Books essential to Confucian study. The “Way of the Mean” became a major philosophical principle of the Chinese civilization and attracted global attention. In The Doctrine of the Mean, Zisi wrote: “The Mean is the great foundation of the world; Harmony is the universal path of the world. When the Mean and Harmony are achieved, Heaven and Earth find their proper place, and all things flourish.” He also said: “To follow the Mean with ease—this is the sage.”

Taken literally, “zhong” (mean) refers to balance, moderation, and the correct path; “yong” means constant, ordinary, or unchanging. Together, Zhongyong means “steadfast adherence to the right path.” Zisi praised the Mean as the great Way of the world and the root of all things.

As for how to attain the state of the Mean, Zisi particularly emphasized that the practitioner must be “utmost sincerity, like the divine.” Where there is sincerity, there is efficacy; without sincerity, all fails. He said: “Sincerity is the Way of Heaven; to become sincere is the Way of humanity. The sincere person hits the mark without effort, attains without deliberation, and naturally follows the Mean.” He also said: “Only one who is utterly sincere under Heaven can fully realize his nature and participate with Heaven and Earth.” “Utmost sincerity is like the divine”; “Only utter sincerity can establish the great foundation of the world and understand the transforming and nurturing processes of Heaven and Earth.” By “sincerity,” Zisi meant what people commonly call wholehearted sincerity. When sincerity becomes pure and without admixture, sacred like the divine, one reaches the realm of the divine—this is what Zisi meant by “utmost sincerity like the divine.” Sincerity connects with Heaven, achieving the unity of Heaven and humanity, and “participating with Heaven and Earth.” Zisi imbued “sincerity” with religious meaning, elevating Confucius’s ethics into a religious realm connected with God. This was a major development that raised Confucian philosophy to a religious level, in essence reaching the realm of the divine.

Zisi also held that “sincerity” was closely related to the theory of the Five Elements. In the Han dynasty, Zheng Xuan, in his commentary on The Doctrine of the Mean concerning “What Heaven ordains is called nature,” wrote: “The spirit of wood is benevolence, the spirit of metal is righteousness, the spirit of fire is ritual propriety, the spirit of water is wisdom, and the spirit of earth is trustworthiness.” This means that “What Heaven ordains is called nature” includes the content of the Five Elements, elevating benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and trustworthiness to the level of the divine.

In the late period of his leadership in the 2000s, Hu Jintao reflected that he had committed the error of “the Way of the Mean.” He misunderstood the Mean as simply taking a middle road, neither left nor right. He intended to criticize his own compromise approach, whereas the Communist Party’s discipline has always leaned “left,” with greater leftism considered more revolutionary; the middle road is seen as fence-sitting or muddling through, tantamount to rightist deviation. Nevertheless, Hu Jintao’s citation of Zisi’s Doctrine of the Mean, rather than Marxist-Leninist classics, shows an inclination to return to tradition, even if vague and imprecise. In 2009, he supported the filming of the movie Confucius. As early as 2001, he even approved the erection of a tall statue of Confucius east of Tiananmen. It was done very quietly, without ceremony or news coverage, not in Tiananmen Square itself but along Chang’an Avenue, as if serving as a backdrop to Mao Zedong overlooking Tiananmen. Yet long-yearning citizens of Beijing soon discovered it, and people quickly went to kneel and pay homage. When the paramount leader Jiang Zemin learned of this, he soon ordered its removal. The Confucius statue was quietly dismantled and taken away at midnight, relegated to museum storage, and never mentioned again. Still, from Hu Jintao’s efforts to follow the tide and revive national tradition, one can see that The Doctrine of the Mean, written by Zisi 2,500 years ago, and the “Way of the Mean” he established, have long been deeply rooted in the hearts of the Chinese people. The “sincerity” advocated by Zisi—sincere heart, sincere intention, and trustworthiness—has likewise entered the nation’s bloodstream generation after generation.

In The Doctrine of the Mean, Zisi also proposed the “Nine Principles of Statecraft,” saying: “There are nine guiding principles for governing the world and states: cultivating oneself; honoring the worthy; cherishing one’s kin; respecting great ministers; being considerate to the body of officials; treating the common people as one’s children; attracting artisans; treating distant peoples with gentleness; and cherishing the feudal lords.” He further explained: “When one cultivates oneself, the Way is established; when one honors the worthy, there is no confusion; when one cherishes kin, uncles and brothers bear no resentment; when one respects great ministers, there is no delusion; when one is considerate to officials, they repay with loyalty; when one treats the common people as one’s children, the people are encouraged; when one attracts artisans, resources are sufficient; when one treats distant peoples with gentleness, all quarters come to submit; when one cherishes the feudal lords, the world stands in awe.” Zisi said that by practicing these nine principles of governance, one can “restore extinguished lineages, revive fallen states, bring order to chaos, stabilize peril, conduct diplomatic visits at proper times, give generously and receive lightly—yet the key lies in the single word ‘sincerity.’”

Selected Sayings of Zisi:

When joy, anger, sorrow, and pleasure have not yet arisen, this is called the Mean; when they arise and are all in due measure, this is called Harmony. The Mean is the great Way of the world; Harmony is the universal path of the world. When the Mean and Harmony are achieved, Heaven and Earth find their proper places, and all things flourish.

For thousands of years, the Chinese civilization has preserved the vast, upright vital force of Heaven and Earth within a small space.

One must ensure that the moral mind always governs the self, and that the human mind obeys it; then what is dangerous becomes safe, and what is subtle becomes manifest.

To pursue sincerity is to choose the good and hold fast to it. Sincerity is the beginning and end of all things; without sincerity, nothing exists.

Only utter sincerity under Heaven can manage the great affairs of the world, establish its great foundation, and understand the great nurturing processes of Heaven and Earth.

When a state is about to flourish, auspicious signs appear; when a state is about to perish, ominous portents arise. Utmost sincerity is like the divine.

What Heaven ordains is called nature; following nature is called the Way; cultivating the Way is called teaching.

Books are records: they carry the Way, convey feelings, resolve doubts, and illuminate wisdom.
Love of learning is close to wisdom; diligent practice is close to benevolence; knowing shame is close to courage.