I. Establishing Order and Institutions

At the end of the Spring and Autumn period, most states were in a condition of “the collapse of rites and the decay of music.” Political life was chaotic: rulers were assassinated, rebellions and usurpations were rampant, and the people were unable to survive. In this age of disorder, Confucius traveled tirelessly, calling upon rulers and ministers to “restrain the self and restore the rites” so that “the world might return to benevolence.” In response to the situation in which “the ruler was no longer a ruler, and the minister no longer a minister,” Confucius solemnly proposed: “Let the ruler be ruler, the minister minister, the father father, and the son son,” and “strictness between ruler and minister, closeness between father and son, and distinction between husband and wife,” in order to establish stable political and social order. Later Confucians such as Mencius and Dong Zhongshu summarized this as the “Three Bonds and Five Constant Relationships,” namely: “the ruler as the guiding bond of the minister, the father as the guiding bond of the son, and the husband as the guiding bond of the wife,” with special emphasis on loyalty to the ruler and care for ministers. The Five Constant Relationships are: righteousness between ruler and minister, affection between father and son, distinction between husband and wife, proper order between elder and younger, and trust between friends. When Confucius spoke of li (rites), the highest and greatest form of li was institutional order and system, equivalent to a modern constitution. Everyone, including the Son of Heaven and the ruler, was required to obey it. The “Three Bonds and Five Constant Relationships” constitute the highest and greatest li, the very essence of a constitution.

Once this basic institutional framework of the “Three Bonds and Five Constant Relationships” is established, the state and society settle into order, public confidence stabilizes, and people’s livelihoods are secured. Confucius required that “the minister serve the ruler with loyalty, and the ruler treat the minister with ritual propriety.” Mencius later elaborated: “If the ruler regards his ministers as hands and feet, the ministers will regard the ruler as their heart.” With such a relationship between ruler and minister, political order is guaranteed. Han Feizi likewise stated: “When ministers serve rulers, sons serve fathers, and wives serve husbands, and all three relationships are harmonious, the world is governed; when the three are inverted, the world falls into chaos.”

The “Three Bonds and Five Constant Relationships,” as Confucius’ overarching framework for governing the world, have been transmitted and developed for 2,500 years. History has proven them correct beyond doubt, and even in today’s modern society—whether in China or globally—they still correspond to human realities. In contemporary America, too, the principle of “the ruler as the guiding bond of the minister” applies. Each democratically elected president, upon taking office, becomes the central authority—the “bond”—around whom the cabinet is formed, and the cabinet members function as his “ministers.” Thus, the principle of “the president as the guiding bond of cabinet officials” is implemented. This establishes a ruler–minister relationship similar to that of Confucius’ era. In substance, there is no fundamental difference between Confucius and America in this regard.

“Father as the guiding bond of the son” means that before the age of eighteen, children naturally obey their father in all things. After eighteen, many people in modern society still follow their father’s guidance. A family has a head, and the head is most often the father. When the father is gone, brothers in a family often drift apart. The father represents tradition, and the idea of a “guiding bond” signifies the transmission of tradition. The essential meaning of “father as the guiding bond of the son” remains applicable to modern society.

“Husband as the guiding bond of the wife” has been the norm since ancient times, in both East and West. This is arranged by God: the man primarily engages with the outside world, the woman primarily with the household; the man creates, the woman sustains life. History is created by men—history, “his story.” Thus, “husband as the guiding bond of the wife” is taken as natural law, Heaven’s mandate. Without the guiding bond of the husband, the wife has nothing to rely upon, and the marital bond dissolves. Modern feminism’s demand for equality of personal dignity is reasonable; God does not discriminate against women, but clearly affirms “the distinction between men and women,” in agreement with Confucius.

In the modern world, there have been some female presidents and prime ministers, but these are exceptional cases. In most instances, leadership still rests with men. Empress Dowager Cixi, who effectively ruled for more than forty years during the Qing dynasty, deeply understood the intentions of Confucius and God. Unlike Wu Zetian, who proclaimed herself emperor, Cixi refused the imperial title. The emperor remained male; she governed from behind the curtain, exercising power from the shadows.

When the “Three Bonds” are improperly carried out, later Confucians offered corrective principles: “If the ruler is not upright, the minister may defect to another state; if the father is not benevolent, the son may flee to another land; if the husband is not upright, the wife may remarry.” Within the “Five Constant Relationships,” “righteousness” in the ruler–minister relationship refers to moral restraint; “affection” in the father–son relationship refers to bloodline and tradition, requiring conduct according to tradition. “Distinction” between husband and wife is ordained by God, a natural expression of Heaven’s will. “Order between elder and younger” means the elder cares for the younger and the younger respects the elder—this natural order prevents common conflicts such as brothers fighting over property, and more importantly, prevents royal brothers from rebelling and killing one another for power. “Trust between friends” refers to sincerity and mutual confidence, which needs no explanation. Modern credit systems are built precisely on such sincerity between friends, functioning as mutual restraint and becoming an important component of universal values.

The Communist Party completely destroyed the “Three Bonds and Five Constant Relationships.” Mao Zedong not only became a Communist emperor, but an unprecedented demon in Chinese history, a sun god with boundless power, turning all the people into his servants. Zhou Enlai, regarded for forty years as the most loyal to Mao, was merely a senior servant—capable of doing what ordinary servants could not. Zhou personally emptied the demon’s spittoon and responded at all times to Mao’s summons. The relationship between Mao and his wife likewise became that of master and dog; Jiang Qing openly declared, “I am the Chairman’s dog—whoever he tells me to bite, I bite.” Throughout Chinese history, emperors offered sacrifices to Heaven and feared the Mandate of Heaven; Mao, lawless and unrestrained, spoke only of “meeting Marx after death.” All notions of the “Three Bonds and Five Constant Relationships” were utterly annihilated. Mao became the greatest slave master in Chinese and world history, ruling over 800 million enslaved people.

II. Benevolence as the Foundation, Governing by Virtue

Confucius repeatedly praised the righteous way of the ancient sage-kings Yao, Shun, and Yu: placing the people first and courageously assuming responsibility. “Great indeed was Yao as ruler,” he exclaimed, recalling the ancient kings and saying: “Government is rectification. If you lead with rectitude, who would dare not be upright?” He also said: “Governing by virtue brings a sense of shame and moral transformation; without issuing orders, things are accomplished.” He emphasized that officials must first rectify themselves: “If one’s own conduct is upright, things will be done even without orders; if one’s conduct is not upright, orders will not be obeyed even when issued.” “Governing lies in people—promote the upright and place them above the crooked, and the crooked will become upright.” Confucius required rulers to practice benevolence: “The benevolent love others,” “restrain the self and restore the rites, and the world will return to benevolence,” “With benevolent governance, those nearby will be pleased and those far away will come.” He stressed that rulers must take responsibility, saying: “If I alone am guilty, let it not implicate the myriad states; if the myriad states are guilty, the guilt lies with me,” and “If the people have faults, the responsibility lies with me alone.” Confucius required rulers to “honor the Five Beauties and eliminate the Four Evils.” The Five Beauties are: “benefiting others without waste, laboring others without resentment, desiring without greed, being at ease without arrogance, and being dignified without cruelty.” The Four Evils are: “killing without teaching, which is cruelty; demanding results without warning, which is oppression; issuing orders carelessly and enforcing deadlines harshly, which is harm; and being stingy in giving what should be given, which is the pettiness of an official.”

Confucius placed great importance on moral education in governance. He emphasized that people should “be inspired by poetry, established by rites, and perfected by music,” allowing poetry and music to cultivate the people’s minds, enabling them to understand propriety while enjoying life, thus creating joyful lives.

During Hu Jintao’s administration in the 2000s, he also invoked Confucius’ slogan of “governing by virtue” in an attempt to remedy moral decay and corruption within officialdom. However, while Jiang Zemin still ruled as a de facto paramount leader, Hu’s orders were not carried out. Jiang deliberately tolerated corruption among military leaders to secure their loyalty; military corruption set the tone, and officialdom nationwide became filthy and chaotic. Public attention focused on anti-corruption, yet Hu was unable to act decisively. He could only promote “governing by virtue” rhetorically, which the public treated as a joke. With corruption rampant at the top, “governing by virtue” became an empty slogan. Hu also proposed the slogan of “Eight Honors and Eight Shames,” but in an official culture that no longer understood shame, it became another source of public mockery.

III. Taking History as a Warning: Historians as Judges

Confucius attached great importance to court history. In his later years, instead of writing philosophical treatises, he devoted himself to compiling the Spring and Autumn Annals, recording major political and judicial events in the state of Lu, especially matters of life and death, much like a judge rendering verdicts. Hence the saying: “When Confucius wrote the Spring and Autumn Annals, treacherous ministers and rebels trembled.” The Annals have been transmitted through the ages, forming irrefutable cases, condemning traitors and rebels to eternal infamy and exerting powerful deterrence. Confucius pioneered this form of “historian-centered governance,” which was passed down through successive dynasties. In many periods, the censorate ranked just below the prime minister; historians functioned like chief justices, determining how history would record events and judging the merits and demerits of individuals. Later generations could draw upon past cases to adjudicate contemporary affairs, much as American judges rely on precedent. The “official historian” system established by Confucius served functions similar to law. China’s two-thousand-year reverence for history—as something akin to religion or law—originated with Confucius.

Mao Zedong trampled upon Chinese civilization. No traitor or rebel in Chinese history compares to him, yet he placed enormous importance on having court intellectuals fabricate history for him in order to deceive the world. Figures such as Hu Qiaomu, shameless lackeys of Mao, sacrificed conscience for high office and wealth, compiling a “Party history” centered entirely on Mao and exhausting every means to glorify the demon. Hu showed a faint trace of remorse before his death, but died before true repentance; one may imagine that upon entering Heaven, he would eventually repent in tears.

The historian Gao Hua rose up to challenge Hu’s distortions and, over ten years of effort, wrote How Did the Red Sun Rise?, exposing how the Maoist demon in Yan’an crushed loyal figures and subdued all opposition, paving Mao’s path to imperial power. The book was banned from publication in China. Gao Hua died young from overwork and illness. One may imagine Gao and Hu meeting in Heaven: Gao, with the moral spirit of Confucius writing the Spring and Autumn Annals, upholding justice, while Hu Qiaomu stands speechless, bowing his head in guilt.

IV. Governing the State by Cultivating Gentlemen

Confucius emphasized that ministers must be gentlemen (junzi), and that governing the state depends on gentlemen. In The Analects, he expounded extensively on the “Way of the Gentleman,” explaining from many perspectives what constitutes a gentleman and how one cultivates oneself to become one. Confucius said: “The gentleman attends to the root; when the root is established, the Way arises.” “The gentleman is cautious in speech and quick in action.” “The gentleman does not promote or discard people based on hearsay.” “The gentleman has three reflections and three cautions.” “There are six roots of conduct before one can be a gentleman: in personal conduct, righteousness is the root; in filial piety, devotion is the root; in mourning, grief is the root; in warfare, courage is the root; in governance, loyalty is the root; in managing a state, propriety is the root; in producing wealth, righteousness is the root.” “The gentleman is at ease and prosperous without arrogance.” “The gentleman places righteousness above bravery; bravery without righteousness leads to chaos.” “The gentleman compares virtue to jade—gentle, warm, and benevolent.” “The gentleman practices the Mean and acts in accordance with the proper time.” “The gentleman seeks harmony without conformity, stands centered without leaning.” “The gentleman has no anxiety or fear; having examined himself and found no guilt, what is there to fear?” “The gentleman is open and at ease; the petty man is constantly anxious.” “The gentleman uses culture to make friends and friends to support benevolence.”

“The gentleman is respectful without error, courteous and proper toward others; within the four seas, all are brothers.” “The gentleman brings out the good in others and does not bring out their evil.” “The gentleman seeks harmony but not uniformity.” “The faults of the gentleman are like eclipses of the sun and moon: when they occur, all can see them; when corrected, all look up in admiration.” “The gentleman has three things he fears: he fears the Mandate of Heaven, he fears great men, and he fears the words of sages.”

Confucius devoted his entire life to teaching. With three thousand disciples, he gave himself fully to instruction without weariness, all for the purpose of cultivating gentlemen—transforming ordinary people into gentlemen. Only when a state is governed by many gentlemen can it achieve stability and peace.

In later generations, many gentlemen entered officialdom and rose to become shi (scholar-officials), yet the spirit of the shi continued to take the gentleman as its ideal.

In the modern era of Communist revolution, many intellectual elites who once possessed the temperament of gentlemen entered the Communist furnace and were largely transformed, losing the qualities of gentlemen or shi. Only Qu Qiubai, who before his execution wrote Superfluous Words, repented his becoming a “Bolshevik” and still emitted a faint trace of the gentleman’s spirit. He stands as a rare example of repentance among Communist leaders.