Confucius lived during the late Spring and Autumn period of the Zhou Dynasty in the 5th century BCE. At that time, the Zhou capital was in Luoyang, Henan. Various vassal states recognized the Zhou king as their nominal overlord, allowing for relative peace, though occasional warfare still occurred.

During the Spring and Autumn period, Confucius developed a complete philosophical system, marking the maturity of Chinese civilization. However, his ideas were not widely accepted during the ensuing war-torn centuries. The Warring States period saw the fragmentation of China into independent military powers constantly vying for supremacy. The most popular text then was The Art of War by Sun Tzu, which advocated any means necessary—trickery, spies, deception—as long as victory was achieved. In such times, the moral governance of Confucius, focused on benevolent rule and ethical principles, was considered impractical; “distant water does not quench a nearby fire,” and the Warring States ignored his teachings.

More than a century after Confucius, Mencius inherited and developed Confucian thought, but still during the Warring States, it was not widely accepted. The Spring and Autumn period lasted 294 years, the Warring States period 254 years, totaling over 500 years of turmoil. Only after Qin unified China did the idea of Confucian benevolent governance gain traction, and even then, Qin Shi Huang did not adopt it. It was not until the Han dynasty, under Dong Zhongshu and Emperor Wu, that Confucianism became mainstream—over 300 years after Confucius’ death.

Confucius was born on September 28, 551 BCE, in the State of Lu (modern Qufu, Shandong). His distant ancestors were nobles of the Shang royal family, serving as ministers in the State of Song (modern Henan). Confucius’ father was a minister in Zou of Lu and had nine daughters before marrying the 18-year-old Yan Shi at age 72, producing Confucius. His given name was Qiu (丘). Because his mother prayed for a child at Mount Niqiu, he was named Qiu and styled Zhongni. Confucius grew to be tall, reportedly 9 feet 6 inches in ancient measurement, about 1.86 meters.

Confucius’ father died when he was three, and he was raised by his mother in modest circumstances. He studied while performing manual labor. As he later said: “I was of lowly birth, so I learned many humble skills.” His mother passed away when he was 17. At 19, Confucius served the Lu noble Ji family as a record-keeper and manager of granaries and livestock, marrying Yuan Guan of Song the following year. Their son, Kong Li (styled Boyu), was named after receiving carp from Duke Zhao of Lu. Kong Li died young, leaving a son, Kong Ji (styled Zisi), Confucius’ beloved grandson.

At 23, Confucius began teaching disciples in the countryside, including Yan You (father of Yan Hui), Zeng Dian (father of Zeng Shen), and Ran Geng. At 27, he met the ruler of the State of Tan, Tan Zi, who was famous for his scholarship. Confucius consulted him about governance, by then already running a private academy—a precursor to the Chinese private school system.

Confucius “At Thirty, Established”

By age 30, Confucius had gained some recognition, and he famously said: “At thirty, I was established.” That year, Duke Jing of Qi and Yan Ying visited Lu and discussed the issue of Qin’s expansion with him.

At 35, Lu fell into internal strife. Duke Zhao was defeated by the Three Huan clans (Ji, Shu, Meng) and fled to Qi. Confucius followed and served as a retainer to Gao Zhao Zi, earning the favor of Duke Jing of Qi. Qi wanted to grant him land, but Yan Ying opposed it. Confucius loved Qi music, immersing himself for months. When Duke Jing asked about governance, Confucius replied: “Let the ruler be a ruler, the minister a minister, the father a father, the son a son,” and also said: “Governance requires frugality.” Later, plots against Confucius forced him to leave Qi after five years and return to Lu. By 40, having spent over 20 years honing his knowledge, he claimed: “At forty, I was free from doubts.”

Confucius “At Forty, Free from Doubt”

Back in Lu, Confucius was not immediately given office due to the power of the Ji family. He mostly taught and compiled the Book of Songs, Book of Documents, Rites, and Music. Later he served briefly as a minor minister, then at 51 became chief magistrate of the central district, and then Grand Minister of Justice, reforming the state and punishing corrupt officials. He planned to weaken the Three Huan clans but abandoned the effort, leaving it incomplete.

His reforms in Lu alarmed Qi. Qi officials sent 80 female entertainers to distract Duke Ding of Lu, straining Confucius’ relationship with the ruler, ending his official role. Confucius then began a journey of wandering the states with his disciples.

Encounters in Wei, Chen, Song, and Zheng

Confucius traveled with disciples Zilu, Zigong, Yan Hui, and others. In Wei, Duke Ling welcomed him and offered teaching duties at court, but no political role. Confucius was summoned by the duchess Nan Zi, prompting Zilu’s protest. Confucius swore to Heaven: “If I am in the wrong, may Heaven punish me!” He stayed 10 months in Wei, then left after being suspected due to court intrigue.

On the journey to Chen, they were trapped for five days in Kuangcheng and later blocked again due to rebellion, forcing a return to Wei. Eventually, Wei’s ruler welcomed him back multiple times. Passing through Cao, Confucius was ignored, then reached Song—his ancestral homeland. He performed rituals under a large tree despite threats from Song officials.

In Zheng, he became temporarily separated from his disciples, standing alone like “a dog without a home,” a remark he laughed off. On the way to Chen and Cai, his group was trapped and near starvation; he persisted in teaching despite hardship. Later, King Zhao of Chu welcomed him, even offering land, though it was blocked.

Return to Lu and Final Years

At 67, Confucius was recalled to Lu by Ji Kangzi, ending 14 years of wandering. He wished to serve politically but was ignored, focusing on teaching and compiling texts. At 69, his son Kong Li died. At 70, Confucius famously said: “At seventy, I follow my heart without transgressing the rules.” That year, his favorite disciple Yan Hui died, and the following year, disciple Zilu also died.

In his final year, Zigong visited Confucius, who wept and lamented: “The world has long lacked the Way. No one listens to my teachings. My ideas cannot be realized.” Confucius died on April 11, 479 BCE, at age 73. He was buried in Lu, and many disciples guarded his tomb for three years. The site became known as “Kongli,” and his former residence was converted into a temple for veneration. Zigong guarded the tomb for six years.