1. I Ching (c. 1000 BCE)

The Five Classics — I Ching (Book of Changes), Shangshu (Book of Documents), Shijing (Book of Songs), Chunqiu (Spring and Autumn Annals), and Liji (Book of Rites) — are the ancient texts of China prior to Confucius. They are the living source of Chinese civilization, widely cited by all schools of thought during Confucius’s era.

The I Ching, also called Zhou Yi, is the earliest classical text of China, compiled about 3,000 years ago. Tradition holds that King Wen of Zhou wrote it during his imprisonment (“King Wen’s Difficulties and the Creation of the Changes”), though scholars believe it was a collective work compiled under his guidance.

The I Ching embodies simple natural laws and harmonious thinking. It reflects the interaction between humans and nature — the principle of tian ren he yi (unity of Heaven and humanity). It represents 5,000 years of Chinese wisdom and serves as the source of all classical thought and the moral framework of Chinese civilization.

The first of the three historical I Ching collections is Lianshan (Continuous Mountains), created after Pangu opened Heaven and Earth by the Tianhuang clan. As Zheng Xuan noted: “Symbols of mountains appear in clouds, continuous without end; the trigram Gen begins, representing the endless stretch of mountains, hence the name Continuous Mountains.” It was guided by the four seasons and the primordial eight trigrams (xiantian bagua). Most of the text has been lost; only some trigram names and 52 scholarly essays survive.

After Lianshan came Guicang (Returning and Storing), beginning with the Kun trigram. It describes all things returning to Earth, governed by Qi — Heaven’s Qi rises, Earth’s Qi stores, Fire’s Qi grows, Water’s Qi nurtures. It once had 4,300 characters, now mostly lost, with only the names of 64 trigrams preserved.

The I Ching is a divination book for predicting future fortunes and misfortunes, using yin-yang symbols (trigrams) to represent the states of all things and predict success, failure, and auspices in war, governance, agriculture, and more.

Confucius wrote the Ten Wings (Shiyi), also called Yi Zhuan, to interpret the I Ching, though scholars generally consider this a collective work. Confucius advocated: “What the gentleman rests upon is the order of the Changes” — referring to the sequence of the trigrams. He said: “When at rest, observe the symbols; when active, observe their transformations. Heaven supports this, and all will be auspicious.”

The popular New Year blessing “Da Ji Da Li” (great luck and great profit), used for 3,000 years, comes from the Qian trigram (Heaven) in the I Ching, which says: “Yuan Heng Li Zhen” — “Yuan Heng” signifies great luck, and “Li Zhen” signifies great profit.

The I Ching begins by praising the universe and all creation: “Great indeed is the primal power of Earth; all things are nurtured and sustained. Following Heaven, Earth carries all things; virtue is boundless, encompassing vastness, illuminating all; every being prospers. The mare corresponds to Earth, moving without limit; softness and perseverance are correct.”

The 64 trigrams of the I Ching describe the eternal order of the world. The sequence of trigrams says: “With Heaven and Earth, all things are born. With creatures, rituals are born; rituals allow proper nurturing. With Heaven and Earth, men and women exist, then couples, then father and son, then ruler and ministers; from this hierarchy comes rites and propriety. Couples act rightly and consistently.”

Confucius stated: “The gentleman attends to timing. When the time comes, he acts; attending to timing is like running swiftly. The gentleman works all day; acting according to timing, he stops when the moment is exhausted, knowing the end; this preserves righteousness.”

He further said: “What a gentleman relies on for stability is the order of the Changes. At rest, observe the symbols; in motion, observe the transformations. Heaven supports this, and all will be auspicious. Civilization relies on integrity, responding with proper conduct. The gentleman acts rightly, in harmony with nature; Heaven and humanity are united.”

Legend holds that 5,000 years ago, the sage Fuxi first created the Eight Trigrams. Their exterior is mysterious, and their inner philosophy profound. The I Ching was a collective divination record documenting changes in all aspects of ancient society.

For 3,000 years, countless scholars have written interpretations — reportedly 3,000 volumes in total, averaging one per year, from ancient times to the present, with a continuous scholarly tradition.

2. Shangshu (c. 800 BCE)

The Shangshu (Book of Documents) is an ancient text documenting speeches and decrees of rulers from the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties over 1,800 years. Recorded by official historians, it compiles political documents, decrees, oaths, orders, and memorials. It originally contained 58 sections: five of Yu, four of Xia, seventeen of Shang, and thirty of Zhou. Tradition holds that Confucius compiled 100 sections, most of which were lost in wars and later supplemented.

Beyond recording governance, the Shangshu preserves invaluable historical information on economy, geography, and society. Its main focus is the virtuous ruler’s governance and the loyal minister’s duties. Famous maxims include:

“Be bright and discerning, care for the nine clans; when the clans are harmonious, regulate the people, and all nations will be at peace,”
“Be diligent and frugal,”
“Act publicly, not selfishly; the people will sincerely follow,”
“Prepare in all matters, so no harm comes,”
“Unite hearts and virtue.”

The text emphasizes the mandate of Heaven, virtue, and governance. Virtue commands respect, and force ensures obedience; a virtuous ruler can achieve compliance without battle, while those who violate virtue fear armed force.

From Da Yu Mo: “Virtue is good governance; governance is nurturing the people. The heavenly numbers are within you; diligently pursue what is worthy. Across the four seas, all suffering ends, and Heaven’s blessing is eternal.”

It also records the famous 16-character principle: “The human heart is perilous; the Dao heart is subtle; concentrate and focus; hold sincerity in the middle.”

3. Shijing (11th–6th century BCE)

The Shijing (Book of Songs) is China’s earliest poetry anthology, containing 305 poems from the early Western Zhou to mid-Spring and Autumn period. It reflects labor, love, war, oppression, rebellion, customs, marriage, ancestor worship, banquets, astronomy, society, animals, and plants — a mirror of Zhou society.

Originally, about 3,000 poems were collected by vassal states and organized by historians and musicians. Confucius selected and refined 305, contributing to the music and ceremonial use.

The Shijing is divided into:

Feng (Airs of the States): 15 groups, 160 poems, regional folk songs reflecting local culture, mostly composed by commoners.

Ya (Odes): 105 poems from Zhou-controlled regions, with Da Ya (31) for rulers’ ceremonies and Xiao Ya (74) for banquets. Themes include politics, praise of virtuous deeds, and social critique.

Song (Hymns): 40 poems for ancestral or state worship, including Zhou Song, Lu Song, Shang Song. Performed with music and dance, praising rulers and gods.

The Shijing reflects the popular voice, political feedback, and moral instruction. In diplomacy, poems conveyed subtle messages. Confucius highly valued it: “The 300 poems, one phrase sums it up: thoughts without evil.” “Study poetry, cultivate gentle conduct; without poetry, one cannot express oneself.” It trains imagination, satire, and moral education.

4. Chunqiu (5th century BCE)

The Chunqiu (Spring and Autumn Annals) is the first chronological history of ancient China, recording events from the Western Zhou onward. Compiled by the historians of the State of Lu, it documented breaches of ritual and propriety and collected records from other states.

The extant annals cover 12 rulers from Duke Yin to Duke Ai of Lu, spanning 244 years. Written in concise style, about 18,000 characters, edited by dozens of hands.

Confucius revised the Chunqiu, subtly condemning vice and praising virtue, letting historical judgment replace divine judgment. It became a moral and political guide: “Only a sage could compile the Spring and Autumn Annals; ministers and rebels feared its judgment. It punished evil and encouraged good, leaving a single Spring and Autumn for all time.”

Because of brevity, commentaries were later written: Zuo Zhuan (30 volumes, by Zuo Qiuming), Gongyang Zhuan (11), Guliang Zhuan (11).

In modern times, the Yanhuang Chunqiu magazine (1991–2016) emulated Confucius’ spirit of the Spring and Autumn Annals, publishing historically accurate articles independent of Maoist ideology, but was eventually banned by Xi Jinping for allegedly “smearing history.”

5. Liji (1st century CE)

The Liji (Book of Rites) was compiled in the Han dynasty, selecting classical rituals and institutional texts. It contains 20 scrolls, 49 chapters, and about 100,000 characters. Edited by Han scholar Dai Sheng, it is called Xiao Dai Liji.

Zhu Xi considered Liji as branches of ritual, complementing Confucius’ Analects and Mencius, exceeding Xunzi in value. Many Chinese universities cite it in their mottos: Henan University “Self-Strengthening,” Southeast University “Pursue Excellence,” Fudan University “Broad Learning and Steadfast Aspiration.”

Liji covers rites, music, social order, family, and governance. Important sections include Zeng Zi Wen, Liyun, Yuan Gong Wen, Zhongni Yan Ju, Kongzi Xian Ju, Zhongyong, Daxue, and funeral rites. It systematically discusses education (Xueji), music (Yueji), sacrifice (Jifa), ethics, and law.

Through Liji, one can perceive the author’s view of Heaven (humanity in accord with Heaven), the cosmos (mind governs, virtue is fundamental, rites are secondary), and life philosophy (emphasis on self-cultivation).

Literarily, it combines essays, expositions, and narratives, with layered structure, varying pacing, elegant diction, and diverse rhetoric. It preserves and transmits Chinese cultural civilization and is a priceless cultural treasure.