1. Yao (circa 2255 BCE)

Emperor Yao, a descendant of the Yellow Emperor, appeared around 4,000 years ago. According to records, Yao (2356–2255 BCE) ascended the throne at age 20, ruled for 70 years, and passed away at the age of 118. He is considered the first emperor to embody ethical and moral ideals. Confucius said: “How great was Yao as a ruler! Majestic indeed! Heaven alone is great; only Yao measured up.” Yao became the founding ancestor of Confucian moral tradition. Sima Qian described him as “the most ideal monarch.”

Legend says Yao was born on Mount Yiqi (today’s Baoding, Hebei). His mother, in the open fields, was touched by a red dragon and conceived Yao, who was born after fourteen months. Yao belonged to the Red Dragon lineage, a “child of the dragon.” At age 20, Yao became emperor, ruling from Pingyang (modern Linfen, Shanxi). He was benevolent, perceptive, and skillful in governance, renowned throughout the world as a virtuous sovereign. He diligently attended state affairs, lived simply with plain meals and modest attire.

Yao established laws prohibiting deceit, set up a remonstrance drum to allow commoners to voice opinions, and erected a criticism wood to encourage feedback. He said: “If one person suffers hunger, it is as if I myself am hungry; if one suffers cold, it is as if I myself am cold.” He cared for the people in every detail, levied light taxes, and earned the admiration of his subjects. Yao promoted harmony and moral conduct, ensuring peaceful coexistence among all peoples.

Sima Qian praised Yao in the Records of the Grand Historian: “His benevolence was like heaven, his wisdom like a god. Approach him like the sun, regard him like clouds. Rich yet not arrogant, noble yet not indulgent. He could cultivate virtue and unite the nine clans. When the clans were harmonious, the people followed; the people were enlightened, and the world united.” Emperor Wu of Han called Yao “an eternal model for emperors, a teacher for all generations.” Poet Du Fu wrote: “Raise rulers like Yao and Shun again, and restore the purity of customs.”

Worried that talented individuals might be overlooked, Yao searched remote lands and discovered Shun, the son of a blind father with a stubborn disposition, a reckless mother, and an arrogant brother. Despite this, Shun practiced filial piety, maintaining family harmony. Yao, after receiving recommendations from the people, married two of his daughters to Shun to observe his character.

Shun treated his wives in accordance with filial piety. Satisfied with his conduct, Yao sent nine sons to observe Shun’s management of family affairs. Shun was then appointed to several government positions, performing all duties diligently. He was also tasked with receiving visiting chieftains and envoys, and he conducted himself with prudence and harmony, earning widespread respect. Pleased, Yao said: “You have handled affairs with care. After three years of testing, you shall ascend to the throne.” In 2072 BCE, Shun officially succeeded Yao. Yao passed away 28 years later at 118 and was buried in Jiyin (modern Gezé, Shandong). The people mourned him as if losing a parent, observing a three-year period of mourning without entertainment.

During his reign, Yao paid attention to weather and agriculture, appointing ministers to manage astronomy, formulate calendars, guide planting times, observe celestial patterns, and notify the people of climate changes to prevent disasters. Yao invented brewing wine and the game of Go for entertainment.

2. Shun

During Yao’s reign, the four mountains recommended Shun. When Yao summoned him and asked: “How can the world be at peace?” Shun replied: “Treat people with fairness and impartiality, even in minor matters; maintain trustworthiness, and people will naturally follow.”

Yao further asked: “What matters most?” Shun said: “Sacrifice to Heaven.”
“What office is most important?” Shun: “Managing the land.”
“What task comes first?” Shun: “Caring for the people.”

Yao was greatly satisfied and bestowed gifts upon Shun: fine clothing, a qin, livestock, granaries, marriage to his daughters, and palaces—all to test his abilities. Shun consistently demonstrated moral leadership, valuing harmony and benevolence.

At fifty, after twenty years of observation, Shun proved capable of ruling. Yao appointed him as acting sovereign while he traveled the lands. Shun observed celestial phenomena, sacrificed to Heaven, selected auspicious dates, and received local leaders. Every five years he toured the kingdom, dividing it into twelve regions. Shun reorganized ritual practices, reduced punishments, promoted virtue, and cultivated neighborly harmony.

At fifty-eight, after eight years as regent, Shun formally ascended the throne following Yao’s death. He wore mourning for three years but initially deferred to Yao’s son Dan Zhu. However, the people did not recognize Dan Zhu; all regional lords sought audience with Shun. Recognizing the will of Heaven, Shun returned to the capital and assumed full rulership. He promoted virtue, appointed capable ministers, and established offices overseeing agriculture, law, crafts, forests, rites, public opinion, music, and education.

Shun instructed the twelve regional leaders to uphold Yao’s virtues, ruling with benevolence and righteousness. He particularly reminded Yu, Minister of Infrastructure, to maintain filial and social duties, instructing judges to act fairly to earn the people’s trust. Officials were evaluated every three years for their performance.

Under Shun, all officials contributed to governance, with Yu achieving the greatest fame by controlling floods, setting an example for the people. The empire enjoyed unprecedented peace within 5,000 li, earning gratitude and admiration from all.

At 83, Shun, recognizing his age and unworthy relatives, recommended Yu as successor. Seventeen years later, Shun died while inspecting the south, aged 101, and was buried in Mount Jiuyi, Hunan.

Shun’s legacy is widely commemorated. The World Shun Descendants Association held grand meetings in Hong Kong (1982), Taiwan (1986), and Kuala Lumpur (1992). Numerous place names in China honor him, including roads, schools, and temples in Jinan, Anhui, Hunan, Shanxi, Zhejiang, and Jiangsu.

3. Yu

Emperor Yu, of the Xia lineage and descendant of the Yellow Emperor, achieved great merit by controlling floods and succeeded Shun to establish the Xia dynasty. Tasked with flood control, Yu labored tirelessly: scaling mountains, crossing rivers, mapping waterways, and dredging the nine rivers. Flowing west to east, he directed floods into the sea. For thirteen years, he passed his home three times without entering. Ultimately, he subdued the floods, earning the people’s support. Shun formally abdicated in Yu’s favor.

After mourning Shun for three years, Yu temporarily retired to the small city of Yangcheng, yielding to Shun’s son, Shang Jun. However, regional lords rejected Shang Jun and recognized Yu. At 53, Yu formally assumed the throne, establishing the Xia dynasty in Yangcheng (modern Xia County, Shanxi). He granted territories: Dan Zhu (Yao’s son) received Tang, Shang Jun (Shun’s son) received Yu. Yu reformed the calendar, creating the Xia calendar (later called the lunar calendar). Yu lived simply, with modest dwellings and attire.

During the Tu Mountain conference of feudal lords, Yu humbly said: “My virtue is limited; I am not worthy to command you. Please criticize me so I may correct my faults. The former emperor warned: ‘Do not be arrogant; no one will compete with you. Do not boast; no one will compete for merit.’” Recognizing Yu’s divine mandate and humility, the lords respected him.

Yu ordered the casting of nine great cauldrons from tribute bronze, symbolizing control over the nine regions. He established taxes, land allocation, social hierarchy, and one of the earliest prohibition laws on alcohol. He organized music and education, judicial procedures, and policy consultation. Yu reigned for fifteen years, traveling east, dying at age 100 in today’s Shaoxing, Zhejiang. His son Qi succeeded him. Yu’s mausoleum, temple, and shrine are preserved in Shaoxing, and successive dynasties, from Shang to Qing, held state ceremonies in his honor.

4. Tang (circa 1666 BCE)

Tang of Shang was a powerful vassal under the Xia dynasty. Four centuries after Yu, during the tyrannical reign of Xia Jie, who was corrupt, cruel, and indulgent, the people rebelled. Tang led military campaigns for twenty years, eleven major battles, following Heaven’s mandate and gaining the people’s support, eventually overthrowing Xia and founding the Shang dynasty—the Tang Revolution.

“Reform” here is likened to tanning leather: the old is removed and renewed, aligning with Heaven’s will. Tang was born in Shangqiu, Henan. He opposed Jie’s tyranny, developed agriculture, stored supplies, trained troops, and gathered allies. After twenty years of repeated campaigns, all regions submitted.

In 1666 BCE, Tang swore an oath in Shangqiu, reading the “Tang Oath” and denouncing Jie’s crimes. Leading seventy war chariots and five thousand elite soldiers, he advanced even during a thunderstorm. Jie’s army was defeated; he fled to Shandong with 500 followers. Tang pursued and captured Jie, executing those loyal to him, and exiling Jie to Mount Ting.

Three years after establishing Shang, Jie died of despair. Tang held grand ceremonies, appeased former Xia officials, and declared the Shang dynasty officially founded, receiving tribute from vassals across the region. Within months, 3,000 lords attended the Shang capital. Tang treated the tributaries with courtesy, humbly claiming only the status of a lord, and was then formally recognized as emperor.

Tang reduced taxes, encouraged production, pacified the people, and extended his influence even to tribes in upper Shaanxi and Gansu. In his 27th year, he relocated the nine cauldrons to Shangyi (Shangqiu, Henan). He died at 100 in his 29th year, buried in Shangqiu.

Folk tales describe Tang as compassionate. Upon seeing farmers setting nets to catch birds, he instructed: “Do not catch all; leave one side open to avoid interfering with Heaven’s will.” This gave rise to the idiom “leave one side open” (网开三面). Temples and mausoleums dedicated to Tang exist in Henan’s Shangqiu and Jiaozuo.