In The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (1996), the renowned American political scientist Samuel Huntington (1927–2008) identified the core values of Western civilization as including:

Classical heritage, Greek philosophy, idealism
Christianity and Roman law
Catholicism, Protestantism, and the Reformation
God and gold; outward expansion and conquest
Separation of spiritual authority and secular authority
Dualism of God and emperor
Rule of law, constitutionalism, human rights
Social pluralism and diverse autonomous groups
Monasteries, religious orders, corporations, guilds, and associations
Independent nobility and a merchant class
Latin and the diversity of European languages
Representative institutions, estates, parliaments, expanded senates, and movements for autonomy
Traditions of freedom, equal rights, individualism, and individual rights

Western civilization emerged from the Dark Ages in the 11th century. In the 12th–13th centuries, Roman law was revived and parliamentary institutions took shape. The 14th century saw the Renaissance; the 15th century, the great geographical discoveries; the 16th century, the Reformation; the 17th century, the foundations of modern science; the 18th century, the Industrial Revolution; the 19th century, colonial expansion; and the 20th century, the technological revolution and the advent of the information society. Moving from agricultural civilization to industrial civilization and then to information civilization, the West has come to be widely recognized as the mainstream of modern universal civilization.

What, then, is the core of Chinese civilization? Represented by Confucius and Laozi, the core of Chinese civilization began to take shape more than 4,000 years ago. Its principal values include:

1. Reverence for Heaven’s Mandate, Following the Way of Heaven, and Respect for God

More than 500 years before Confucius, the Book of Documents (Shangshu) already proclaimed: “Heaven moves with vigor.” The Nine Heavens are profound and unfathomable; Heaven is recognized as the Creator, the supreme ruler of all things. Heaven gives birth to and nurtures the earth, protects the people below. Throughout successive dynasties, celestial phenomena were believed to reveal Heaven’s will. People revered Heaven’s mandate and submitted to destiny.

The Book of Changes (Yijing) states: “When Heaven and Earth opened, all things were in chaos; yin and yang became their foundation.” Heaven possesses the Supreme Ultimate, the source of the Dao. There is resonance between Heaven and humanity, and unity between Heaven and humankind—humans and Heaven respond to each other and form an organic whole.

The Book of Songs (Shijing), compiled by Confucius and dating back more than 3,000 years, contains several poems praising Heaven:

One poem, “Heaven Created” (Tian Zuo), states: “Heaven created Mount Qi; King Wen prospered there; his descendants preserved it.” (It extols Heaven’s creation of the sacred land of Mount Qi, King Wen’s flourishing path, and the enduring fortune of his descendants.)

Another poem, “The Mandate of Heaven” (Wei Tian Zhi Ming), says: “The mandate of Heaven favored our King Wen; his descendants faithfully upheld it.” (It praises King Wen as the recipient of Heaven’s mandate and urges later generations to follow his beneficence.)

The poem “The Birth of the People” (Sheng Min) recounts how Hou Ji’s mother, during a suburban sacrifice, stepped into the footprint of God, conceived miraculously, and gave birth to Hou Ji—signifying the sacred origin of kingship bestowed by God.

Another poem, “Plans for the People’s Livelihood”, expresses gratitude to God for granting good seeds and abundant harvests, celebrating the sharing of the harvest with ancestors and God, and praying for continued divine blessing.

The poem “The Ministers” (Chen Gong) likewise praises God for bestowing abundance:
“Radiant is the Supreme God, granting us prosperous years.” The Zhou king admonishes his ministers and officials, extolling the glorious and great God for granting a year of plenty. Proclamations to the people resembled modern Thanksgiving proclamations in the United States, all centered on gratitude to God for the harvest.

Another verse in the Book of Songs declares: “The mandate of God is not to be disobeyed, thus Tang achieved unity.” “The Supreme God is revered; the imperial mandate extends to the nine regions.”

In the Book of Rites (Liji), compiled by Confucius, the chapter “Royal Regulations” states:
“When the Son of Heaven sets forth, he performs rites to the Supreme God; when the Son of Heaven goes on campaign, he performs rites to the Supreme God; the Son of Heaven sacrifices to Heaven and Earth.” The emperor is regarded as the “Son of Heaven,” while God is the personified Heaven. The earthly ruler is the son of the heavenly God.

Zeng Shen wrote in The Kingdom of Heaven: “The refined essence of yang is called spirit; the refined essence of yin is called soul. Spirits and souls are the origin of all things.” He further affirmed that spiritual beings govern the universe and constitute the foundation of all existence.

From these brief citations, it is evident that more than 3,000 years ago, China already revered God, feared Heaven’s mandate, respected the Way of Heaven, and followed the principles of Heaven without daring to violate them. This constitutes the most fundamental core of Chinese civilization.

For over three millennia, successive Chinese dynasties have maintained the tradition of sacrificing to Heaven. Beijing still has the Temple of Heaven, where Qing emperors performed annual rites to Heaven. Sacrificing to Heaven was in essence worshipping God, conducted with even greater solemnity than in the West. Although Maoist communism devastated Chinese civilization for decades, it still dared not rename the Temple of Heaven as the “Temple of Mao” or the “Temple of Marx,” showing that the deep-rooted tradition of worshipping Heaven endures—Heaven cannot be defied. Tiananmen (Gate of Heavenly Peace) literally means “Gate of Heaven-bestowed peace and prosperity”; even Maoist rule did not dare rename it as “Mao’anmen” or “Marx’anmen.”

“Heaven” has long been deeply embedded in the hearts of the Chinese people and infused into the nation’s cultural bloodstream. Common expressions include: “Heaven has eyes,” “Submit to Heaven’s will,” “May the heavenly palace bestow blessings,” “May the Lord of Heaven protect us,” and after death, “return to Heaven.” The Chinese exclamation “My heavens!” carries the same meaning as Westerners’ “My God!” Five hundred years ago, the Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci observed that the Chinese concept of “Heaven” was equivalent to the Western “God,” and that Confucius and Jesus were like brothers. The great Han dynasty scholar Zheng Xuan explicitly stated: “God is simply another name for Heaven.”

Although belief in God did not crystallize into an institutional religion in China, the Chinese people have long possessed a strong religious sentiment of reverence for God.

For decades, Mao Zedong proclaimed “struggling against Heaven is great joy.” To struggle against Heaven is to struggle against God. During the Cultural Revolution, slogans such as “lawless and godless” were openly promoted, inciting nationwide armed संघर्ष that led to countless deaths—an utter betrayal of China’s civilizational tradition.

2. The Tao Te Ching

Laozi’s Tao Te Ching was written approximately 2,500 years before Confucius. Before the Tao Te Ching, there were works such as the I Ching, Shangshu, and Shijing, but the systematic discussion of Chinese civilization’s cosmology, values, and views on life began with the Tao Te Ching. After Confucius, it was widely revered by pre-Qin scholars. The text extensively discusses governance, military strategy, self-cultivation, and the nurturing of one’s character.

The Tao Te Ching represents not only the core of Chinese civilization. According to the United Nations, apart from the Bible, it is the most widely translated classic in the world, available in 97 languages and nearly 2,051 editions, making it the second globally accepted book after the Bible. In 1987, The New York Times ranked Laozi as the greatest writer of all time.

The Tao Te Ching emphasizes a cosmology of “following nature,” values life over fame and fortune, advocates modesty and contentment, renounces greed, and promotes natural effortless action (wu wei).

Laozi lived during the Eastern Zhou period, a time when feudal lords waged constant wars, making it impossible to restore rites and ethics. He proposed “returning to nature” and “governing through non-interference” to achieve a calm life for “small states with few people.” Laozi advocated the “highest virtue” (shang de), in which all actions align with nature, life is valued, fame and profit are de-emphasized, greed is avoided, and one cultivates inner peace. In Laozi’s view, Confucius’ promotion of “benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and faith” (ren, yi, li, zhi, xin) was a result of human moral education and did not achieve the “transcendent non-action” of the highest virtue. The “rituals” required by law were only of the “lower virtue” (xia de).

Laozi’s concept of the “Dao” (Way) is the primordial source of all things in heaven and earth. Humans should emulate heaven and earth; heaven and earth should emulate the Dao. “The Dao emulates nature” — the Dao is nature. Nature is the foundation of the Dao, the maternal source. All laws, ethics, and policies must align with the Dao.

The Tao Te Ching also aligns with Confucius’ ideal of the gentleman’s personality, characterized by “warmth, kindness, respect, frugality, and humility.” Laozi advocates emptiness, stillness, and softness, which harmonizes with Confucius’ advocacy of humility, patience, and non-contention.

3. The Ideal of Great Unity (Datong)

Confucius proposed the concept of a “Great Unity” society, which has been the ideal of the Chinese nation for 2,500 years and forms a core part of Chinese civilization.

In the Liyun chapter “Datong Pian” (The Great Unity), Confucius briefly describes the Great Unity society: “When the great way prevails, the world is shared by all. Worthy and capable individuals are selected. Faithfulness and harmony are promoted. People do not only care for their own parents, nor only treat their own children as children. The elderly live out their years, the capable are employed, the young grow and mature. Widows, orphans, the lonely, the sick, and the disabled are all cared for. Men fulfill their duties, women have proper roles. Goods are not discarded, labor is exerted without selfishness. Therefore, plots do not arise, thieves and rebels do not appear. Doors remain open at night. This is called the Great Unity.”

Referring also to Confucius’ Analects, the Great Unity ideal derives from the “Way of the Three Kings” (the virtuous rulers of Xia, Shang, and Zhou) and traces back further to the “virtues of the Five Emperors,” respecting the Way of the ancients and aligning “heaven, earth, and humanity.” The Great Unity society consists of filial parents and obedient children, men fulfilling their duties, women with proper roles, adults fully employed, children properly raised, capable individuals selected, rulers and ministers acting with righteousness, friends trustworthy, the elderly properly cared for, orphans and the disabled supported, everyone contributing effort, resources fully utilized, private hoarding unnecessary, no one steals on the road, doors remain unlocked at night, hearts are harmonious, aligned with Heaven’s Way, and society is in harmony.

This vision of Great Unity differs from Western individualism, emphasizing selflessness, universal care, and social harmony. Confucius’ Great Unity became a spiritual cohesive force for the Chinese nation.

When communism was imported from Russia to China a century ago, scholars struggled to translate “communism” (communism) into Chinese. People did not understand the concept of “gongchan” (common ownership). Some suggested “Datongism” because it was closest in meaning.

However, “Datong” does not imply violent seizure of power nor confiscation of all private property to a single party, so the term “communism” was eventually used directly.

During decades of Mao’s rule, not only was all property collectivized under party control, but Mao, in 1958 at the central conference during the Great Leap Forward, enthusiastically stated: “To eliminate the small peasant economy, we must eliminate the family. Men and women will work and live together, in collective dormitories. Haven’t the West accused us of communizing wives? They were correct. Marx’s Communist Manifesto already says to abolish the family, abolish classes, liberate all humanity — liberate thoughts, bodies, and sexuality. Only through sexual liberation can complete liberation be achieved.”

This statement was not officially transmitted downward by Liu Shaoqi and others, but all top leaders were aware. Mao used Communist power to seize other men’s wives and daughters — how many hundreds or thousands we cannot know. Many senior cadres, including Gao Gang, imitated Mao, practicing “abolishing families and communizing wives,” destroying countless ordinary families.

4. The Doctrine of the Mean

The Doctrine of the Mean (Zhongyong) originates from Confucius’ saying: “The gentleman follows the mean; the gentleman’s conduct is appropriate to the time.” Confucius’ grandson, Zisi, composed the Zhongyong, further developing Confucian thought. During the Song dynasty, Zhu Xi formally included the Zhongyong as one of the Four Books, alongside Confucius’ Analects, establishing the Doctrine of the Mean as one of the core elements of Chinese civilization.

The Zhongyong states: “The Mean is the great foundation of the world.” “What Heaven has conferred is called human nature; following human nature is called the Way.” “Harmony is the great Way of the world. Governance through the Mean ensures Heaven and Earth are in their places, and all things flourish.”

Zisi elevated the Doctrine of the Mean to the level of “Mandate of Heaven” and “Heaven’s Way.” He emphasized that governance in harmony (zheng zhonghe) constitutes the world’s great path. This is more than the ordinary interpretation of moderation — “not extreme, not biased.” Literally, zhong (中) means the central path, and yong (庸) means unchanging. Together, zhongyong means “standing firm on the central path” or “upholding the correct way.” Zisi raised the correct path to the level of Heaven’s Way, originating from the Mandate of Heaven. By following Heaven’s mandate and way, governance in harmony achieves the Doctrine of the Mean — the great Way of Heaven and Earth.

Zisi emphasized that reaching the state of the Mean requires sincerity (cheng), described as “perfect sincerity like a deity” — pure, without impurity, and sanctified like God. Only by attaining this level of sincerity can one communicate with Heaven, achieving “unity of man and Heaven” (tian ren he yi), thus connecting with God. In effect, Zisi elevated Confucian ethics to a religious dimension, transforming Confucian philosophy into a form of religious development, reaching the level of God. In other words, adhering to the Doctrine of the Mean is adhering to God’s Way, connecting with Heaven, and aligning with God’s will. Heaven’s intent is God’s will, Heaven’s Way is God’s Way; upholding the Doctrine of the Mean is upholding God’s Way.

When Hu Jintao stepped down, his administration was criticized for misapplying the Doctrine of the Mean. He misunderstood “mean” as a centrist or compromise approach, not left, not right, which conflicted with the CCP’s view that revolutionary action must lean left. Although Hu’s reference to the Doctrine of the Mean was inaccurate, the fact that he sought guidance from China’s traditional philosophy rather than Marxism-Leninism or Mao Zedong Thought showed his intent to return to tradition. In the 2000s, he allowed lectures on Confucius at Renmin University for two years, permitted the filming of the movie Confucius, and allowed the erection of a Confucius statue on Tiananmen Avenue — actions indicating his desire to revive Confucius, far surpassing Jiang Zemin’s order to remove the statue.

5. The Three Bonds and Five Constants

The “Three Bonds and Five Constants” (sangang wuchang) form the foundational governance principles of Chinese civilization. Dong Zhongshu summarized the Three Bonds as: “Ruler guides minister, father guides son, husband guides wife,” emphasizing loyalty to the ruler and love for one’s subjects. The Five Constants are: “Ruler and minister observe righteousness, father and son maintain filial affection, husband and wife observe proper roles, elders and juniors observe order, friends observe trust.”

Confucius taught that the highest form of li (ritual/propriety) is system and order — the Three Bonds and Five Constants — analogous to the modern constitution, the essence of constitutional law.

Confucius required: “The minister serves the ruler with loyalty; the ruler treats the minister with propriety.”

Mencius added: “If the ruler regards his minister as his own limbs, the minister regards the ruler as his heart.”

Such relationships ensure political stability. Han Feizi similarly said: “If ministers serve their ruler, sons serve their father, and wives serve their husbands, the world is in order; if not, the world falls into chaos.”

The Three Bonds and Five Constants, passed down and developed for over 2,000 years, have been historically proven effective. Modern Western societies essentially follow similar principles. For example, in the United States, when a president is elected, he is the “ruler,” and his cabinet members are “ministers,” establishing a ruler-subject relationship. Confucius’ principles and American governance are fundamentally similar — the concept of “ruler guiding minister” (jun wei chen gang) has universal value.

“Father guides son” applies not only before a child reaches adulthood (18 years old) but also often afterward, as parents still represent tradition. The term “gang” (纲) implies the inheritance of tradition. Many father-son businesses in modern America reflect the continued relevance of “father guides son,” demonstrating its universal value.

“Husband guides wife” has been universal in both East and West since antiquity, reflecting natural divine arrangement: the man manages external affairs, the woman manages the household; the man creates, the woman continues life. History is “made by men” (History = his story). Therefore, “husband guides wife” is natural, ordained by Heaven, and aligned with God’s will — not discrimination against women.

During the Qing dynasty, Empress Dowager Cixi, who effectively ruled for over forty years, fully understood Confucius’ and God’s intent. She never claimed the throne or assumed the title of emperor, remaining behind the curtain in de facto governance while the emperor remained male.

If the Three Bonds are not properly followed, later Confucians added: “If the ruler is unjust, ministers may serve another state; if the father is unkind, the son may leave; if the husband is improper, the wife may remarry.”

During Mao Zedong’s decades of rule, the Three Bonds and Five Constants were completely destroyed. Mao became the “Communist king,” with all citizens as his slaves, ruling over 800 million people. Today, Xi Jinping imitates Mao’s model, audaciously attempting to extend it toward “global governance.”

6. Benevolence and Benevolent Governance

Benevolence (ren) is the core of Chinese civilization. Confucius taught benevolence, starting with love within the family for one’s parents and children, and extending it to society: “Love the elderly in your family and also the elderly of others; love your children and also the children of others.”

From this principle of love, Confucius established an ethical system grounded in benevolence. When Confucius speaks of ren, and Jesus speaks of universal love (agape), the meanings are equivalent — connecting Chinese and Western thought.

Starting from “the benevolent love others,” a state should implement benevolent governance (renzheng), placing the people as the foundation. Confucius emphasized that rulers must first correct themselves: “If one’s own conduct is correct, commands are obeyed without issuing them; if one’s conduct is incorrect, even orders will not be followed.” “Governing depends on the people: place the upright in positions of authority, remove the crooked — then the crooked will be straightened.” “Government is rectitude. If the leader is upright, who dares not be upright?”

Mencius elevated this principle further: “The people are the most important; the ruler comes second; the state comes third.” This clearly places the people as the foremost priority — the foundation of benevolent governance.

Mao Zedong inflicted decades of suffering on the Chinese people because he loved only himself, viewing the populace as tools for maintaining power, cannon fodder in war. The Great Leap Forward caused famine that killed tens of millions, yet Mao ignored their deaths, destroyed reports, withheld food, and refused disaster relief. During the famine, all resources were diverted to accelerate China’s nuclear bomb program — prioritizing bombs over the people.

Today, Xi Jinping continues Mao’s legacy, using enormous sums to produce anti-American propaganda films like The Battle at Lake Changjin, pushing citizens to emulate Mao’s “human wave” tactics, preparing for conflict with the U.S. Like Mao, Xi advocates human-wave tactics against democratic Taiwan — showing complete disregard for the welfare of the people and a total betrayal of China’s civilizational tradition.

7. The Doctrine of Loyalty and Forgiveness (Zhongshu)

Over 2,500 years ago, a disciple asked Confucius: “Is there one saying that can guide a person throughout life?”

Confucius replied: “Do not impose on others what you yourself do not desire.”

This principle of empathy and forgiveness became widely adopted in China. The character shu (恕) combines “as” (ru) and “heart” (xin), meaning literally: “treat others as your heart desires.” For millennia, Confucius’ teaching of shu has been a universal guideline for interpersonal conduct in China.

In 1993, at the World Conference of Religions in Berlin, this principle — “Do as you would be done by others” — was recognized as the ethical baseline for humanity. Shu became a universal ethical golden rule: do not force on others what you would not want; do not bring disaster to others’ homes; this principle fosters human peace and stability.

8. Righteousness Over Profit

Confucius said: “Wealth and honor are what people desire. If they cannot be obtained according to the Way, one should not pursue them.” “When you see profit, think of righteousness first.”

Chinese civilization prioritizes yi (righteousness). When righteousness and profit cannot coexist, righteousness takes precedence. Confucian ethics holds the motto: “Sacrifice oneself to achieve righteousness.” Benevolence and righteousness come first, the individual second, and material wealth third. Righteousness is always prioritized over profit.

In practice: for the state, righteousness outweighs profit; for individuals, unjust gains should be rejected. Simply put, yi is “what is proper” — that which conforms to the Way.

9. Filial Piety and Harmonious Families

The family is the foundation of society. A healthy and harmonious family ensures societal stability. Chinese civilization places great importance on family, maintained through love, with filial piety (xiao) as the core. Filial piety originates from love for one’s parents. Confucian scholar Zeng Shen authored the Classic of Filial Piety (Xiaojing), one of the thirteen Confucian classics:

“Filial piety is Heaven’s principle, Earth’s duty, and the conduct of the people. Nothing surpasses filial piety. Filial piety is the root of virtue. It begins with serving parents, extends to serving the ruler, and culminates in establishing oneself.”

The Doctrine of the Mean states: “Filial piety is the skill to continue the will of others, to fulfill their affairs, to honor those esteemed, to love those dear, to serve the deceased as in life, and to treat the departed as if they remain.”

The Xiaojing adds: “Utmost filial piety reaches the divine, shines across the world, all-powerful, and universally connected. In life, one serves with love and respect; in death, with grief and care. The foundation of life and the principle of death are fulfilled; the filial child completes service to parents.”

Mao’s rule destroyed this tradition. Citizens were forced to pledge allegiance to Mao, abandoning their ancestral families. Countless families were broken, graves desecrated — filial piety became taboo. Citizens became slaves of the Party, entirely betraying Chinese civilizational traditions.

10. The Way of the Gentleman (Junzi) — Self-Cultivation as the Foundation

Confucius taught that good governance relies on the gentleman (junzi), akin to the English gentleman. The standards for a junzi are high:

“The gentleman prioritizes righteousness.”
“The gentleman follows the mean; the gentleman’s conduct is appropriate to the time.”
“The gentleman is harmonious but not frivolous, stands firm without leaning.”
“The gentleman’s virtue is like jade: smooth and lustrous — benevolence; intricate like the chestnut — wisdom.”
“The gentleman is careful in speech, quick in action.”
“The gentleman is calm without arrogance.”
“The gentleman focuses on the root; once the root is established, the Way arises.”
“The gentleman is open and upright.”
“The gentleman is free from worry or fear, self-reflective without guilt.”

Confucius emphasized: “Correct your mind, cultivate yourself, harmonize your family, govern the state — cultivation of self is the foundation.”

Zhu Xi, in the Great Learning, summarized: “To cultivate oneself, first correct the heart and make intentions sincere.”

By achieving self-cultivation, one attains the standard of the junzi, and only then can one govern competently.

Mao praised rural bullies and vagabonds to overthrow local gentry and gentlemen, relying on petty criminals during land reform, and incited Red Guards in the Cultural Revolution to attack all conscientious intellectuals. Xi follows Mao’s precedent, relying on similar unruly cohorts, leaving China’s gentlemen suppressed. Only when Xi steps down will the gentlemen rise again.

11. Prime Ministerial Governance

In Chinese civilization, the highest power resides with the emperor. Confucianism recognizes hereditary monarchy but requires the emperor to embody moral authority. Some emperors lacked ability or virtue, thus the prime minister (zaixiang) assisted governance. When the emperor was incompetent or immoral, the prime minister effectively governed, limiting arbitrary rule.

State decisions were deliberated by the prime ministerial council before presentation to the emperor. Some emperors participated minimally; others only approved decisions. For example, the Ming Wanli Emperor protested by refusing to attend court, effectively halting governance — an extreme case of prime ministerial governance. The Confucian ideal is an emperor who is morally exemplary and ceremonial, while capable ministers handle administration, ensuring stability and longevity of the state.

12. Historical Record and Political Accountability

Since Confucius compiled the Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqiu), officials feared misconduct being recorded. All dynasties appointed historians (shiguan), whose authority was second only to the prime minister. Historians judged officials’ actions according to Confucian ethics, independent of the emperor’s whims. This system functioned like modern U.S. Supreme Court judges, with historical records serving as precedents for evaluating future officials.

13. Civil Service Exams and Selecting the Capable

China developed the imperial examination system early, with county, provincial, and metropolitan exams selecting candidates (xiucai, juren, jinshi, zhuangyuan) for lifetime government positions. This system ensured competent officials, prevented nepotism, and allowed lower-class citizens upward mobility — providing merit-based opportunity. From local gentry to imperial ministers, most officials qualified as junzi.

After Deng Xiaoping, some attempts were made to emulate this system via civil service exams, but only for lower-tier bureaucrats, far from the imperial exam’s quality. After the fall of the CCP, China could restore an updated meritocratic system to meet modern needs.

14. Integration of Moral and Political Authority

Throughout Chinese history, Confucianism served as the moral authority (daotong), legitimizing the emperor (zhengtong). The emperor is both moral exemplar and ruler, merging moral and political authority — akin to combining spiritual and secular authority in Western terms. Emperors and ministers were expected to be virtuous; those lacking virtue could not sustain power. Unlike Trump-era officials in the U.S., immoral officials in traditional Chinese governance could not endure, though Mao and Xi allowed corrupt officials to flourish.

15. Religious Freedom and Absence of Unified Religion

Chinese civilization never developed a strong, unified religion. Since Confucius, religious freedom has allowed tolerance of internal and external religions. Confucius preached his teachings without criticizing others. Mozi often criticized Confucians, yet Confucians never attacked Mohists. This established a tradition of tolerance. Unlike the West, China lacked powerful church authority, church-state conflicts, or long religious wars. Buddhism and Christianity were accommodated peacefully. The downside: without a unified faith, national cohesion is weaker than in, for example, Jewish tradition.

16. Ritual and Education: A Nation of Etiquette

Even before Confucius, Chinese civilization valued ritual. The Yi Li is one of the thirteen Confucian classics, emphasizing hierarchy, decorum, and harmonious relationships. Civil conduct was elegant and formal, earning China the reputation of a “nation of etiquette.”

Achieving this required emphasis on education, ritual, and music, rather than punishment. Benevolence and moral influence were prioritized, with a religious sensibility without formal religion. Confucius valued ritual and music for moral cultivation, comparable to Christian hymnody. Confucius himself played the qin and sang, reflecting spiritual devotion.

17. Unity of Language and Script

Chinese civilization is centered on Han culture. The unified Chinese language and characters (Hanzi) allowed cultural continuity, unlike Europe’s multiplicity of languages and scripts. A unified writing system enabled China’s long-term political unity (Da Yitong) and preservation of historical records. Chinese literary heritage is the richest in the world. After the fall of the CCP, these cultural treasures could be rediscovered and contribute to global civilization.

In the past century, communism replaced Chinese civilization with Marxist-Leninist-Maoist dogma, nearly destroying it. In the past decade, Xi has promoted “communist ideals,” “confidence in the path and system,” and suppression of dissent, binding the Chinese people in ideological chains. The U.S. and democratic nations are increasingly aware and working to contain the communist threat. Once communist authoritarianism collapses, China’s traditional civilization will revive and flourish.

Appendix: Core of Indian Civilization

All beings have spirit; equality and diversity; everyone has their place.
Reincarnation; cyclical existence; infinite cycles.
Transcendence of reality; disdain for worldly life; focus on the afterlife.
Culture of suffering; asceticism; present life is hardship, next life is reward.
Religious focus over historical focus.
Tolerance.