Section I: The Functioning Mechanism of India’s Parliamentary Democracy: Bicameralism, Multiparty System, and Elections

India’s parliamentary democracy, one of the most mature democratic systems in Asia, combines bicameralism, a multiparty system, and regular elections to ensure governance stability and representation for its 1.41 billion diverse population. In 2024, India had 968 million eligible voters, the largest electorate in the world, reflecting the depth and breadth of its democracy. The following analyzes its operation in terms of bicameralism, multiparty structure, and electoral mechanisms.

The bicameral structure consists of the Lok Sabha (House of the People, lower house) and the Rajya Sabha (Council of States, upper house), together with the President forming the supreme legislative body. According to the Constitution of India, the Lok Sabha has 543 seats (with two seats reserved for Anglo-Indian community abolished in 2020), elected directly through a first-past-the-post system for a five-year term. The 2024 Lok Sabha election, conducted in seven phases from April 19 to June 1, resulted in a 65.8% voter turnout, slightly lower than 67.4% in 2019. The Rajya Sabha has 245 seats, of which 233 are indirectly elected by state and union territory legislatures, and 12 are nominated by the President to represent experts in literature, arts, science, etc., with a six-year term and one-third of seats up for election every two years. The Rajya Sabha represents federal interests, ensuring balance among states, though it holds weaker powers than the Lok Sabha; for example, Money Bills are solely initiated by the lower house, with the upper house limited to advisory roles. The President has a largely ceremonial role in legislation, responsible for convening or dissolving Parliament and granting final assent to bills (Articles 60 and 111). On May 28, 2023, the new Parliament building (Sansad Bhavan) was inaugurated, increasing Lok Sabha seats to 888 and Rajya Sabha to 384, with a joint session capacity of 1,272, reflecting India’s continued investment in democratic infrastructure.

India’s multiparty system encourages competition among diverse political groups, promoting representation and negotiation. According to the Election Commission of India (ECI) on March 23, 2024, India has six national parties, 57 state parties, and 2,764 registered unrecognized parties, far exceeding most democracies. While the first-past-the-post system favors large parties (Duverger’s Law), regional parties maintain significant influence in the federal structure. In the 2024 election, the ruling National Democratic Alliance (NDA), led by the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), won 293 seats, and the Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance (INDIA), led by the Congress party, won 232 seats, with the remainder distributed among regional parties and independents. Coalition politics is central to the multiparty system; the BJP, lacking an absolute majority (272 seats), relied on regional allies such as the Telugu Desam Party (TDP) and Janata Dal (United) to form a government, demonstrating the stabilizing effect of multiparty negotiations. However, centralized campaign financing and dynastic politics (19% of MPs with family backgrounds, V-Dem 2023) reduce grassroots representation.

The electoral mechanism is overseen by the independent ECI, ensuring free and fair elections. In 2024, 968 million voters were mobilized, with one million polling stations using electronic voting machines (EVMs) and indelible ink for transparency and fraud prevention. Elections were conducted in seven phases to address geographical and climatic challenges, including a heatwave that caused 30 election personnel deaths. Eligibility is based on universal adult suffrage (18+), with no caste, gender, or religious restrictions. Female representation in 2024 was 13.5% (74 seats), slightly down from 14.4% in 2019, indicating gender representation gaps. Although respected, the ECI’s independence faced scrutiny after a 2023 law transferred commissioner appointments to a Prime Minister-led committee. Electoral violence and unequal competition, such as government media influence, also affect fairness, with 10% of constituencies reporting religion- or caste-related conflicts in 2024.

Challenges and significance: Bicameralism and multiparty competition ensure representation of diverse interests, but parliamentary efficiency can be constrained, as shown in December 2023 when 146 opposition MPs were suspended in protest, highlighting excessive ruling-party dominance. Large-scale elections demonstrate democratic vitality, but declining turnout and electoral violence (10% of constituencies in 2024) require attention. India’s parliamentary democracy balances pluralism and stability through institutionalized negotiation, setting an Asian democratic example.

Section II: The Political Ecology of Seven Major National Parties and 900 Minor Parties, Representing Various Social Strata

India’s multiparty political landscape consists of seven major national parties (2024 ECI certified) and approximately 900 registered minor parties, representing caste, religion, regional, and economic interests. The 2024 elections show that these parties, through alliances and competition, ensure diverse representation in Parliament.

The seven national parties include the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), Indian National Congress (Congress), Communist Party of India (CPI), Communist Party of India (Marxist, CPI(M)), Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), Nationalist Congress Party (NCP), and All India Trinamool Congress (AITC). BJP (240 seats) and Congress (99 seats) are the largest, representing right-wing Hindu nationalism and center-left secularism. BJP promotes Hindutva, attracting high-caste and urban middle-class voters (60% urban electorate in 2024) but is criticized for marginalizing Muslims (14% of the population). Congress emphasizes secularism and inclusivity, drawing low-caste, minority, and rural voters (35% rural vote share in 2024). BSP focuses on Dalits, securing 8% in Uttar Pradesh but only 2 seats. CPI and CPI(M) represent left-wing laborers and farmers, mainly in Kerala and West Bengal (10 seats). NCP and AITC base themselves in Maharashtra and West Bengal, representing regional interests. These parties collectively cover high-caste, low-caste, rural, and urban voters through ideology and constituency strategy.

The 900 minor parties, including 57 state parties, focus on regional, caste, or religious issues. For example, the Telugu Desam Party (TDP) represents local development in Andhra Pradesh, winning 16 seats in 2024, while Janata Dal (United) represents OBCs in Bihar, winning 12 seats. Many minor parties win no seats but influence election outcomes; in Uttar Pradesh, Samajwadi Party and BSP split opposition votes, indirectly aiding BJP victories. Minor parties often participate in governance through coalitions, e.g., TDP and JD(U) in NDA receiving ministerial positions. They represent marginalized groups, such as the Naga People’s Front (NPF) advocating tribal rights, winning 1 seat in 2024. Dynastic leadership (30% minor parties) and limited funding constrain influence.

Mechanisms for representing social strata include constituency demarcation and reserved seats (84 for Scheduled Castes, 47 for Scheduled Tribes). The 2023 Women Reservation Bill will reserve 33% of seats for women by 2029, addressing gender underrepresentation (13.5% in 2024). Coalition politics facilitates cross-class negotiation, e.g., BJP and JD(U) balancing high-caste and OBC interests. However, funding inequality (60% of BJP funds from anonymous donations in 2024) and ruling-party media control reduce minor party competitiveness. According to V-Dem 2023, India ranks 19th in Asia on electoral democracy, reflecting the multiparty system’s vitality and challenges.

Challenges and significance: Multiparty democracy ensures diverse representation, but electoral violence (10% constituencies with caste or religious conflict) and corruption (43% MPs with criminal records) undermine fairness. Reforming campaign finance and strengthening ECI independence remain priorities. The political ecology of seven major and 900 minor parties balances India’s pluralistic interests and underpins democratic stability.

Section III: Parliamentary Democracy as a Mechanism to Resolve Social Conflicts and Prevent Large-Scale Street Protests

India’s parliamentary democracy channels social conflicts through institutionalized debate and legislation, mitigating caste, religious, regional, and economic tensions and preventing large-scale street protests. In 2024, Parliament addressed issues including religious conflict, farmer protests, and economic inequality, demonstrating its role as a platform for conflict resolution.

Mechanisms of parliamentary discussion include question periods, debates, and bill scrutiny. Daily Lok Sabha question hours in 2024 addressed 5,000 queries on farmer subsidies, religious violence, and women’s safety. Special sessions handle urgent matters, such as the 2023 Kashmir Act controversy, easing regional tensions. Opposition parties may submit no-confidence or adjournment motions to supervise government action; in 2024, Congress motions prompted adjustments to farmer subsidies. The Rajya Sabha’s indirect elections and six-year terms provide legislative continuity, reducing populist pressures; for instance, the 2024 Wakf Amendment Bill underwent prolonged debate, balancing Muslim community and government interests.

Parliamentary conflict resolution examples include caste and religious issues. The 2020 farmer protests against agricultural reform laws triggered nationwide demonstrations; Parliament repealed the laws in 2021, quelling unrest. In 2024, the Ayodhya mosque site dispute was addressed through compensatory land legislation, avoiding religious escalation. Economic inequality is mitigated through legislation; the 2024 MGNREGS rural employment budget increased to 86 billion INR, benefiting 120 million rural workers and reducing class tensions. Reserved seats for Scheduled Castes and Tribes, along with forthcoming women reservation, ensure marginalized voices in policymaking; in 2024, 84 Dalit MPs promoted anti-discrimination laws.

Effectiveness in preventing protests: Parliamentary debate channels grievances into legislation, reducing street violence. Compared to Bangladesh, where 100 deaths occurred in 2024 election violence, India saw only 10% of constituencies with minor conflicts in 2024. Oversight committees such as the Public Accounts Committee ensure transparency; a 2023 PDS corruption audit reduced food misappropriation by 10%. Nevertheless, Parliament is not flawless; in December 2023, suspension of 146 opposition MPs raised fairness concerns, and the ruling party’s majority sometimes accelerated bill passage, compressing debate time (e.g., 2019 Citizenship Amendment Act).

Challenges and prospects: Parliamentary discussion is limited by ruling-party dominance (BJP controls 60% of committees in 2024) and low sitting days (60 in 2023). Religious and caste tensions persist, with 5% of constituencies reporting Hindu-Muslim conflicts in 2024. Reforms are needed to increase parliamentary sittings (2030 target: 100 days/year) and amend the anti-defection law (1985) to allow independent voting, improving discussion quality. Parliamentary democracy as a platform for conflict resolution contributes to stability in India’s plural society.

Section IV: The Constitution of India: The World’s Longest Written Constitution and Its Impact on Governance

The Constitution of India is the world’s longest written constitution, containing 395 articles (expanded to 470 by 2024, including 104 amendments), covering federal structure, rights guarantees, and governance principles. Its drafting and content have profoundly influenced India’s democratic stability and plural governance.

Drafting process: Following independence in 1947, the Constituent Assembly was formed on December 9, 1946, with 289 members elected from provinces and princely states, drafting the constitution over 2 years and 11 months. Led by B.R. Ambedkar, the assembly incorporated British parliamentary practices, the U.S. Bill of Rights, and Irish constitutional elements, while integrating Indian cultural values such as secularism and equality. The constitution was adopted on November 26, 1949, and came into effect on January 26, 1950. Challenges included religious divisions, with the Muslim League demanding separate electorates, caste disputes, with Ambedkar advocating reserved seats for low castes, and federal power allocation, with princely states seeking autonomy; a strong-central federation was ultimately established. The assembly held 165 public debates, ensuring diverse views were included, laying the foundation for democracy.

Content and features: The constitution comprises 12 parts, 22 chapters, and 395 articles (470 in 2024), detailing federal and state power distribution (Seventh Schedule: Union, State, Concurrent Lists), fundamental rights (Articles 12–35: freedom of speech, religion, equality), and directive principles (Articles 36–51: promoting welfare and justice). Secularism, clarified in the 42nd Amendment (1975), prohibits religious discrimination. Federalism balances central and state powers; the center controls foreign affairs and defense, states manage education and agriculture. Flexible amendment provisions (Article 368) allow adaptation, with 104 amendments (e.g., 2019 revocation of Kashmir’s special status) reflecting responsiveness. However, length (~145,000 words) and procedural complexity draw criticism for reducing administrative efficiency.

Impact on governance: The constitution underpins India’s democratic stability and inclusivity. Federalism promotes unity; the Seventh Schedule resolved 80% of central-state disputes by 2024, including river-sharing conflicts. Fundamental rights protect citizens, with the Supreme Court using Public Interest Litigation (PIL) to safeguard vulnerable groups; in 2024, arbitrary demolitions were ruled unconstitutional. Reserved seats and anti-discrimination clauses (Article 15) enhance Dalit and tribal representation, with 15% of MPs from marginalized groups in 2024. Secularism mitigates religious conflict, exemplified by legislative resolution of the Ayodhya dispute. Constitutional enforcement faces challenges: the ruling party sometimes uses amendment powers to pass controversial laws (e.g., 2019 CAA), provoking Muslim protests; restrictions on fundamental rights affected 17,000 NGOs in 2024. Supreme Court judicial review faced independence scrutiny in 2019–2023 regarding government decisions like the Kashmir Act.

Future prospects: The constitution must address emerging issues such as digital privacy (not explicitly covered) and climate change (only referenced in directive principles). By 2030, the government plans constitutional revisions to include digital rights and sustainable development goals. Its flexibility and inclusivity make the constitution the cornerstone of India’s plural governance, underpinning its status as Asia’s most mature democracy.