Confucianism, as an intellectual tradition spanning several millennia, has never been a monolithic system. Its teachings evolved through history, forming multiple schools of thought. From Confucius’s foundational ideas in early Confucianism, to the debates between Mencius and Xunzi in the Warring States period, to Dong Zhongshu in the Han dynasty, to the Neo-Confucianism of the Song and Ming dynasties (including the School of Principle and the School of Mind), and finally the evidential scholarship of the Qing dynasty—each school inherited and transformed Confucius’s teachings in response to the needs of its era. These schools encompass philosophical inquiry, ethical norms, cosmological speculation, and religious dimensions, collectively shaping the rich content of Confucianism. This section analyzes the doctrines of each school and their contributions to Confucianism.

1. Early Confucianism: The Core Thought of Confucius

Overview

Confucius (551–479 BCE), the founder of Confucianism, centered his teachings on ren (humaneness) and li (rites), emphasizing moral cultivation and social harmony. He declared: “I transmit but do not create; I believe in and love the ancient ways” (Analects, Shu’er), presenting himself as an inheritor of Zhou ritual, not the founder of a new teaching. Nevertheless, his ideas laid the essential foundation of Confucianism.

Key Concepts

Ren (Humaneness):
Confucius viewed ren as the highest moral state, encompassing love for others and personal self-perfection. “The humane person loves others” (Analects, Yan Yuan). Its essence is captured in the principle: “What you do not desire for yourself, do not impose on others.”

Li (Rites):
Li constitutes the external manifestation of ren and regulates social behavior. “If one does not learn the rites, one has no standing” (Analects, Ji Shi). Ritual and music maintain social order.

Filial Piety:
Filial piety is the root of morality. “Filial piety and fraternal respect—are they not the root of ren?” (Analects, Xue’er).

The Doctrine of the Mean:
He advocated the “Way of the Mean,” avoiding extremes and seeking balance: “Perfect indeed is the virtue of the Mean” (Analects, Yong Ye).

Characteristics and Influence

Early Confucianism emphasized practical ethics, education (“education without class distinctions”), and self-cultivation. Confucius did not explore metaphysics; instead, he focused on social and moral order, providing the structural foundation for later schools.

2. The Mencian School: Innate Goodness and Benevolent Government

Overview

Mencius (372–289 BCE), hailed as the “Second Sage,” inherited and expanded Confucius’s ideas, emphasizing the innate goodness of human nature and political ethics. His work Mencius became one of the Four Books.

Key Concepts

Human Nature is Good:
Mencius held that humans are inherently good and possess the “four sprouts”—compassion (ren), shame (yi), deference (li), and judgment (zhi). “All humans have a heart that cannot bear to see others suffer” (Mencius, Gong Sun Chou I).

Benevolent Government:
He argued: “The people are the most important; the state comes next; the ruler is least important” (Mencius, Jin Xin II), advocating humane rule and opposing tyranny.

The Flood-like Qi:
Mencius stated one cultivates a powerful moral force called haoran zhi qi: “I am good at nurturing my flood-like qi” (Mencius, Gong Sun Chou I).

Characteristics and Influence

The Mencian school idealized Confucian values, emphasizing the moral authority of rulers and the welfare of the people. His theory of human goodness became foundational for later Neo-Confucianism.

3. The Xunzian School: Human Nature is Evil and Governance Through Ritual

Overview

Xunzi (c. 313–238 BCE), a prominent late Warring States Confucian, offered a pragmatic and rational approach, contrasting sharply with Mencius. His book Xunzi systematically articulates his philosophy.

Key Concepts

Human Nature is Evil:
“Human nature is evil; goodness is acquired through conscious effort” (Xunzi, Human Nature is Evil). People need education and ritual to overcome selfish desires.

Rule Through Ritual:
Xunzi emphasized li as the foundation of social order and division of labor. “Ritual is the ultimate human standard” (Xunzi, Rituals).

Ritual and Law:
He stressed external restraints, influencing his students Han Fei and Li Si, thus giving rise to Legalism.

Characteristics and Influence

Xunzi’s realism and emphasis on institutions profoundly shaped Han-dynasty Confucianism. Though his theory of human nature did not become mainstream, it enriched Confucian debates.

4. Han Confucianism: Dong Zhongshu’s Theory of Heaven–Human Unity

Overview

Dong Zhongshu (179–104 BCE), a major thinker of Western Han Confucianism, helped systematize Confucianism under Emperor Wu’s policy of “elevating Confucianism as the sole orthodoxy.” His ideas appear in Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals.

Key Concepts

Heaven–Human Resonance:
He proposed the unity of Heaven and humanity (tian ren he yi): Heaven communicates its will through omens and disasters. “The relation between Heaven and humans is one and the same.”

Three Bonds and Five Constants:
He institutionalized the “three bonds” (ruler–minister, father–son, husband–wife) and the “five constants” (ren, yi, li, zhi, xin), strengthening social hierarchy and political ethics.

The Gongyang Tradition:
Using the Gongyang Commentary to interpret Spring and Autumn, he emphasized cosmology, moral governance, and imperial unity.

Characteristics and Influence

Dong Zhongshu merged Confucianism with cosmology and state ideology, giving it a religious and political dimension that shaped imperial China for centuries.

5. Song–Ming Neo-Confucianism: Zhu Xi’s Theory of Heavenly Principle

Overview

Neo-Confucianism (11th–17th centuries) represents the philosophical peak of Confucianism. Zhu Xi (1130–1200) systematized earlier thought, and his Commentaries on the Four Books became the core of the imperial examination system.

Key Concepts

Heavenly Principle vs. Human Desire:
Zhu Xi held that li (principle) is the cosmic essence, and humans must “preserve Heavenly Principle and eliminate human desires.”

Investigation of Things:
Knowledge arises from investigating the principles within things (gewu zhizhi): through inquiry one may attain sagehood.

Moral and Political Practice:
Neo-Confucianism emphasized a stepwise approach: self-cultivation, family governance, state governance, and universal order.

Characteristics and Influence

Zhu Xi’s metaphysical system became orthodox Confucianism in East Asia through the examination system, deeply influencing China, Korea, and Japan. Its contemplative character reduced Confucianism’s religious dimension.

6. Ming Dynasty School of Mind: Wang Yangming’s Doctrine of Innate Knowledge

Overview

Wang Yangming (1472–1529) founded the School of Mind, criticizing Zhu Xi’s overly abstract approach. His teachings appear in Instructions for Practical Living (Chuanxilu).

Key Concepts

The Mind is Principle:
Wang taught that all truth resides within the mind: “There is no principle outside the mind; there are no things outside the mind.”

Innate Knowledge (Liangzhi):
Everyone possesses innate moral knowledge, which must be activated through practice.

Unity of Knowledge and Action:
“Knowledge is the beginning of action; action is the completion of knowledge.”

Characteristics and Influence

The School of Mind stressed intuition and moral action, opposing the scholastic tendencies of Neo-Confucianism. It contributed to intellectual liberation in the Ming dynasty and greatly influenced Japanese thought and the Meiji Restoration.

7. Qing Dynasty Evidential Scholarship: A Return to the Classics

Overview

Evidential scholarship (17th–19th centuries), led by Gu Yanwu (1613–1682) and Dai Zhen (1724–1777), sought to correct textual errors and return to the original meaning of the classics.

Key Concepts

Practical Learning:
Gu Yanwu emphasized practicality: “Be extensively learned and maintain a sense of shame.” His Record of Knowledge Gained Daily advocated concern for society.

Philological Methods:
Dai Zhen used phonology and philology to clarify texts, asserting that “the highest form of the classics is the Way.”

Critique of Neo-Confucianism:
They criticized the metaphysical abstractions of Song–Ming Neo-Confucianism, aiming to restore Confucius’s original teachings.

Characteristics and Influence

Evidential scholarship emphasized empirical research over metaphysics, contributing to modern academic methods but reducing Confucianism’s religious and philosophical dimensions.

8. Conclusion: The Significance of Doctrinal Evolution

The doctrinal evolution of Confucianism—from Confucius’s ethics of ren and li, through Mencian idealism, Xunzian realism, Han cosmology, Song–Ming metaphysics, and Qing philology—demonstrates its remarkable adaptability. These diverse schools collectively shaped the spirit of Confucianism, making it not only an ethical system but also the cultural foundation of East Asia.