As a unique cultural and intellectual system, Confucianism’s “founder” has long been a topic of historical debate. Unlike Jesus in Christianity, Śākyamuni in Buddhism, or Muhammad in Islam, Confucius (551–479 BCE) never claimed to have founded a religion. Instead, he viewed himself as a transmitter of ancient ritual culture. However, as Confucianism evolved—especially during its religious transformation—Confucius gradually became deified and emerged as the central symbol and “founding master” of Confucianism. In addition, the Duke of Zhou (Ji Dan), who laid the foundation for the Zhou ritual system, is often honored alongside Confucius as an ancient sage of Confucian tradition. Yet in terms of direct influence and foundational impact, Confucius is undoubtedly the soul of Confucianism.

This section provides a detailed account of Confucius’s life, ideas, and the evolution of his status within Confucianism.

1. The Life of Confucius

Birth and Early Years

Confucius, personal name Qiu, courtesy name Zhongni, was born in 551 BCE in Zouyi of the State of Lu (modern Qufu, Shandong). His family belonged to a declining aristocratic clan, said to have descended from Shang nobles who migrated to Lu due to political upheaval. His father, Shulianghe, was a military officer in Lu. He fathered Confucius at an old age with the young Yan clan woman. According to Records of the Grand Historian, Confucius’s mother prayed at Mount Ni before his birth, hence the name “Qiu” (meaning “hill”).

When Shulianghe died, Confucius was only three years old. His family lived in poverty, and he was raised by his mother.

Despite his humble beginnings, Confucius was an avid learner from childhood. As he recalled: “At fifteen, I set my heart upon learning” (Analects, Wei Zheng).

Lu preserved the rituals of the Zhou dynasty relatively well, allowing Confucius to study ancient rites and music. He trained in the Six Arts—rites, music, archery, charioteering, writing, and mathematics—laying the foundation for his later thought.

Official Career and Journey Through the States

Around age thirty, Confucius began teaching and soon gained reputation as a private educator. He famously said: “From anyone who brought even a token gift of dried meat, I never refused instruction” (Analects, Shu Er).

By accepting students of all backgrounds, he broke the aristocratic monopoly on education and helped broaden access to learning.

Around 517 BCE, Confucius began his official career. He served as governor of Zhongdu and later as Sikou (Minister of Justice). His governance was effective, but political conflicts hindered his progress. In 497 BCE, due to foreign interference and internal factional struggles, Confucius resigned from office and began a 14-year journey across various states.

He traveled to Wei, Chen, Cai, Chu, and others, seeking to persuade rulers to adopt his reforms and restore Zhou ritual order. However, most rulers admired his wisdom but were unwilling to implement his ideas. In Wei, Duke Ling respected him but did not reform. In Chu, King Zhao wished to employ him but political turmoil prevented it.

Later Years and Educational Work

In 484 BCE, Confucius returned to Lu at age 68. His final years were devoted to teaching and editing the classics: Poetry, Documents, Rites, Music, Changes, and Spring and Autumn—later known as the Six Classics.

He died in 479 BCE at age 73 and was buried by the Si River in Qufu.

His disciples mourned him for three years; Zigong mourned for six, a testament to Confucius’s profound influence.

2. Confucius’s Thought and Contributions

Confucius did not claim to create a new doctrine; he described himself as someone who “transmits but does not innovate—trusting and loving the ancients” (Analects, Shu Er).
Yet while inheriting the Zhou tradition, he transformed it, establishing the core values of Confucianism.

Ren — The Core of Humanity

Ren (benevolence) is the soul of Confucius’s philosophy—love for others and the cultivation of humaneness.
He said: “The benevolent love others” (Analects, Yan Yuan).
When asked about ren, he adapted his answer according to the student: “Love others” (to Fan Chi), “Do not impose on others what you do not desire yourself” (to Zigong).
Ren is both an inner moral cultivation and the foundation of social harmony.

Li — The Norms of Society

Confucius believed that ritual (li) was the external form through which ren is realized.
“Without learning ritual, one cannot take a stand” (Analects, Ji Shi).
He emphasized reviving the Zhou ritual order, structuring society through clear roles among ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife—later forming the basis of the “Three Bonds.”

Filial Piety — The Root of Morality

Confucius called filial piety the root of ethics: “Filial piety and fraternal respect are the root of ren” (Analects, Xue Er).
It extended from family relations to broader social and political responsibility.

The Doctrine of the Mean — The Path of Balance

He advocated moderation: “The virtue of the Mean is supreme” (Analects, Yong Ye).
Avoiding extremes became a hallmark of Confucian ethics.

Education — Teaching for All

Confucius democratized education with “education for all” (Analects, Wei Ling Gong).
He taught some 3,000 students and produced 72 accomplished disciples, laying the groundwork for Confucian transmission.

3. Confucius’s Disciples and the Transmission of Thought

After his death, Confucius’s disciples carried on his teachings, forming the early Confucian branches.

Zigong — diplomatic and economic strategist; spread Confucian ideas across feudal states.

Yan Hui — exemplified moral purity; praised by Confucius as one who “never repeated a fault.”

Zengzi — emphasized filial piety; authored the Classic of Filial Piety.

Zisi — disciple of Zengzi; author of The Doctrine of the Mean, later influencing Mencius.

Mencius and Xunzi inherited and transformed Confucius’s ideas, forming the two major early schools.

4. The Deification of Confucius and the Religious Transformation of Confucianism

Pre-Qin to Early Han: Teacher and Sage

Confucius was not widely recognized during his lifetime. His disciples compiled The Analects after his death.
Mencius elevated him to “sage,” while Xunzi, though critical, still respected his role.
During the Qin repression of Confucianism, his influence waned, and early Han intellectual circles favored Daoism.

Western Han: Official Recognition Begins

Under Emperor Wu of Han (141–87 BCE), Dong Zhongshu proposed elevating Confucianism above other schools.
Confucius was honored as the “Supreme Sage and First Teacher.”
In 1 CE, the imperial court ennobled his descendants, and state Confucius temples began to appear.
Ritual sacrifices established Confucius as both a cultural and political symbol.

Tang and Song Dynasties: The Height of Religious Veneration

Tang emperors further elevated his status:

Emperor Taizong called him “First Sage.”

Emperor Xuanzong titled him “King of Propagated Culture.”

Confucius temples spread across the empire, with rituals comparable to those for Heaven itself.
In the Song dynasty, Neo-Confucianism flourished, and Zhu Xi revered Confucius as the “Great Complete Supreme Sage and King of Propagated Culture.”
In 1008 CE, the court compiled Illustrations of the Sacred Deeds of Confucius, mythologizing his life.

Ming and Qing: Coexistence of Sacred and Secular Images

Ming Taizu emphasized Confucius’s educational significance while maintaining ritual worship.
Qing emperors, including Kangxi, personally offered sacrifices and praised him as “Teacher for Ten Thousand Generations.”
In the late Qing, Kang Youwei attempted to formalize “Confucianism” as a national religion with Confucius as its divine teacher, though unsuccessfully.

Modern Era: Debate and Cultural Symbolism

After the 1911 Revolution, Confucius lost official religious status.
The May Fourth Movement denounced him as a symbol of feudalism.
Yet since the 1980s, he has reemerged as a cultural icon.
By 2025, Confucius remains globally recognized, especially through Confucius Institutes, though more as a philosopher than a religious figure.

5. Confucius’s Place in Confucianism

Philosopher or Religious Leader?

Scholars continue to debate whether Confucius should be considered a religious founder.
Supporters cite Confucian temples, titles such as “Supreme Sage,” and concepts like Heaven’s Mandate. Opponents argue that Confucius never founded a church, and Confucianism is primarily ethical and political.
Historically, Confucius intended to teach and reform society; his religious status emerged from later generations’ needs.

Relationship with the Duke of Zhou

The Duke of Zhou created the Zhou ritual order and was revered by Confucius as an ideal sage.
Confucius once lamented: “Alas, it has been long since I dreamed of the Duke of Zhou.”
Although often paired together, the Duke’s influence was indirect, whereas Confucius became the immediate founder of Confucian tradition.

The Image of Confucius in 2025

By 2025, Confucius is widely seen as a symbol of Chinese civilization.
Ritual offerings continue, but religious overtones have diminished.
He is honored primarily as a sage, educator, and philosophical giant.

6. Conclusion

Confucius began as an educator in the Spring and Autumn period but gradually became revered as the founding master of Confucianism. His rise reflects both the depth of his ideas and the shaping force of later political and cultural developments. Through ren and li, he inspired generations; through education, he reshaped social values. Though he never claimed to found a religion, later ages hailed him as the “Supreme Sage.” His influence crosses millennia, making him the enduring soul of Confucianism and Chinese civilization.