Confucianism, as a vital component of Chinese culture, spans several millennia. It is not only a system of thought but also a social norm and, during certain historical periods, was even regarded as a religion. Its origins can be traced back to the ritual and musical culture and sacrificial traditions of ancient China; its formal establishment, however, is inseparable from the efforts of Confucius and his successors. The history of Confucianism is not merely the evolution of an academic philosophy—it is also the history of China’s political, social, and cultural transformations. The following will examine in stages the development of Confucianism from its early origins to the year 2025.

1. The Pre-Qin Period: The Emergence and Foundation of Confucianism (2000 BCE–221 BCE)

The roots of Confucianism lie deep within the religious practices and social structures of ancient China. Although the Xia dynasty (c. 2070–1600 BCE) lacks clear textual records, archaeological findings show that worship of heaven and earth already existed, providing the embryonic form of the later Confucian concept of the “Mandate of Heaven.”

In the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE), oracle bones reveal the worship of “Di,” the supreme deity. Through divination and ritual offerings, the Shang rulers strengthened the unity of religion and politics, a tradition inherited by later Confucianism.

The Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE) further refined this system. The ritual and musical system created by the Duke of Zhou (Ji Dan) became a direct precursor to Confucianism.

The Establishment of Zhou Rituals and the Concept of the Mandate of Heaven

The Duke of Zhou, a central figure in the early Western Zhou period, developed a ritual system centered on the clan hierarchy based on the sacrificial traditions of the Shang. The Zhou people introduced the idea of the “Mandate of Heaven,” believing that the Son of Heaven ruled by divine appointment and must govern with virtue. This concept later became fundamental to Confucian thought.

The Zhou rituals defined social hierarchies—Son of Heaven, feudal lords, officials, scholars, and commoners—and reinforced religious authority through ceremonies such as sacrifices to heaven and ancestors. For example, the Rites of Zhou records that the Grand Minister of Ancestral Worship oversaw sacrificial affairs, showing the early religious functions of Confucian traditions.

However, from around 771 BCE, the Western Zhou collapsed, and the decline of royal authority led to interstate warfare. The disintegration of the ritual system (“the collapse of rites and music”) provided the historical backdrop for the birth of Confucianism.

The Appearance of Confucius and the Founding of Confucian Thought

Confucius was born in 551 BCE in the State of Lu (modern Qufu, Shandong). A descendant of a declining noble family, he mastered the Six Arts—rites, music, archery, charioteering, writing, and mathematics—and gained a profound understanding of Zhou ritual culture.

In a time of political turmoil, Confucius advocated “self-discipline and returning to ritual” as a means of restoring harmony. He traveled among the states to promote his ideals but was seldom employed. In his later years, he returned to Lu to focus on teaching and editing the classics—Poetry, Documents, Rites, Music, Changes, and Spring and Autumn (later collectively known as the “Six Classics”). He taught three thousand students, seventy-two of whom were considered virtuous.

Confucius emphasized ren (benevolence) as the core of ethics and li (ritual) as the means of social governance. As he stated: “To master oneself and return to ritual is to practice benevolence.” (Analects, Yan Yuan)

This idea became the cornerstone of Confucianism. After his death, disciples such as Zigong, Yan Hui, and Zengzi continued to develop the school.

Development in the Warring States: Mencius and Xunzi

During the Warring States period (475–221 BCE), Confucianism evolved amid competition with the Hundred Schools of Thought.

Mencius (372–289 BCE) developed Confucianism with his theory of the innate goodness of human nature. He argued that people are born good and that moral governance arises from proper education and cultivation. His idea that “the people are of supreme importance, the state secondary, and the ruler least” added a strong people-oriented element to Confucian thought.

Xunzi (313–238 BCE), by contrast, asserted that human nature is evil and must be regulated through ritual and law. His students, Han Fei and Li Si, later developed Legalism, indirectly influencing the practical dimensions of Confucianism.

Although not yet mainstream at this time, Confucian ethics already took root among the scholarly class.

2. Qin and Han Dynasties: The Establishment and Sacralization of Confucianism (221 BCE–220 CE)

Suppression Under the Qin

After unifying the six states in 221 BCE, the First Emperor adopted Legalist doctrines, accepting Li Si’s proposal to burn books and bury scholars (213–212 BCE). Confucian classics were destroyed and Confucian scholars persecuted. The fall of the Qin in 206 BCE, however, opened the way for Confucian revival.

Han Revival and the Contribution of Dong Zhongshu

In the early Western Han, Daoist “Huang-Lao” thought dominated. This changed with Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BCE).

The Confucian scholar Dong Zhongshu proposed “expelling all other schools and honoring only Confucianism,” advising the emperor to make Confucianism the official ideology. Emperor Wu accepted this, established national academies, and used the Five Classics to train officials, institutionalizing Confucianism.

Dong Zhongshu further sacralized Confucianism by proposing the doctrine of “correspondence between Heaven and humanity,” asserting that moral failures of the ruler would provoke natural disasters as warnings from Heaven. He systematized the Three Cardinal Guides and Five Constant Virtues—linking Confucianism with political and cosmic order.

Expansion in the Eastern Han

The Eastern Han (25–220 CE) saw the expansion of Confucian learning. The imperial academy flourished, and the White Tiger Hall Conference (79 CE) formalized orthodox interpretations of the classics, strengthening Confucian authority. But political decline and rebellion later weakened its influence.

3. Wei, Jin, and Southern and Northern Dynasties: Competition and Fusion (220–589 CE)

Three Kingdoms Period

During the Three Kingdoms, constant warfare diminished Confucian influence. Although Cao Cao employed Confucian scholars, practical concerns outweighed doctrinal development.

Neo-Daoist Metaphysics and the Three Traditions

In the Western Jin (265–316), Neo-Daoist metaphysics rose. Thinkers such as Wang Bi and He Yan reinterpreted Confucian classics through Daoist concepts of spontaneity and non-action.

During the Southern and Northern Dynasties (420–589), Buddhism flourished, and Daoism became institutionalized. Confucianism remained official doctrine but shifted toward ethical rather than religious functions.

Attempts at Synthesis

By the late period, efforts emerged to harmonize Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism—the earliest forms of “Three Teachings in One.”

4. Sui and Tang Dynasties: The Flourishing and Transformation of Confucianism (581–907 CE)

Sui Restoration

The Sui dynasty unified China and reestablished state-sponsored Confucian education, reviving its influence.

Tang Dynasty Zenith

The Tang was a golden age for Confucianism. Emperor Taizong honored Confucius as the “Supreme Sage,” and the imperial examination system took shape, with Confucian texts as the basis for selecting officials.

Emperor Xuanzong later elevated Confucius to “King of Cultural Propagation,” built Confucian temples across the empire, and institutionalized state rituals. Confucianism reached its peak of religious authority.

Despite the coexistence of Buddhism and Daoism, Confucianism absorbed Buddhist speculative methods, paving the way for Neo-Confucianism.

5. Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties: Deepening and Secularization (960–1911)
Song Neo-Confucianism

The Song dynasty witnessed the rise of Neo-Confucianism. Zhou Dunyi, the Cheng brothers, and especially Zhu Xi reinterpreted Confucianism philosophically, emphasizing “Heavenly principle” over “human desires” and promoting “investigation of things.”

Yuan Dynasty Decline and Recovery

Under Mongol rule, Confucianism initially declined but later revived as examinations were reinstated.

Ming Dynasty: The School of Mind

Wang Yangming (1472–1529) established the School of Mind, emphasizing innate moral knowledge and practical moral action, standing alongside Neo-Confucianism.

Qing Dynasty: Evidential Scholarship

The Qing rulers promoted Confucianism, but later scholars shifted toward textual criticism and philology, reducing its religious elements. After the Opium War, Western learning challenged Confucian dominance.

6. Modern and Contemporary Era: Crisis and Revival (1911–2025)
Decline After the 1911 Revolution

The fall of the Qing abolished the Confucian-based imperial system. Kang Youwei’s attempt to establish Confucianism as a state religion failed. The May Fourth Movement rejected Confucianism as feudal and obstructive.

20th-Century Silence and Reflection

After 1949, Confucianism was marginalized. During the Cultural Revolution, Confucian temples were destroyed.

From the 1980s onward, renewed interest in traditional culture led to a revival of Confucian studies.

Confucianism in 2025

By 2025, Confucianism has undergone cultural rather than religious revival. Confucius Institutes promote Chinese culture globally, and rituals honoring Confucius have been restored. Though its religious character has faded, Confucian values continue to shape modern ethics, education, and cultural identity.