Hinduism and Buddhism both originated in ancient India and share certain cultural and philosophical foundations, yet over time they developed into distinct intellectual systems. Buddhism was founded by Siddhārtha Gautama (the Buddha) in the 5th century BCE, while Hinduism evolved gradually from the Vedic culture around 2000 BCE. The philosophies of the two traditions intersect and diverge in multiple dimensions, revealing different conceptions of the universe, human nature, and liberation.

This section compares them across four major dimensions and explores their broader significance.

1. Cosmology (Understanding of the World and Existence)

Hinduism

Hindu cosmology is rooted in cycles and a sacred cosmic order.

Cyclical Time:
The Vishnu Purana describes the universe as moving through three recurring phases—creation (Srishti), preservation (Sthiti), and dissolution (Pralaya)—forming countless cycles called kalpas. Each kalpa, approximately 4.3 billion years long, is governed by Vishnu and Shiva.

Brahman:
The Upanishads teach that Brahman is the ultimate reality—formless, all-pervasive, and transcendent. The world is merely a manifestation of Brahman, often described as maya (illusion or appearance), yet still bearing sacred significance.

Multiple Realms:
The universe consists of three realms (heaven, earth, and the underworld) and multiple energetic layers. Deities such as Brahma oversee cosmic functions, while the three gunas—sattva, rajas, tamas—shape the order of existence.

Buddhism

Buddhist cosmology emphasizes beginningless cycles driven by causation.

Beginningless Samsara:
The Middle Length Discourses describe a universe without a first cause. Samsara (rebirth) continues endlessly, driven solely by karma rather than by divine will.

Dependent Origination and Emptiness:
Nāgārjuna’s Madhyamaka philosophy argues that all phenomena arise through dependent origination (pratītyasamutpāda) and lack inherent essence (śūnyatā), rejecting any eternal substance.

Six Realms:
Existence unfolds in six realms—gods, humans, asuras, animals, hungry ghosts, and hell beings—determined by karma, with no deity exercising ultimate authority.

Comparison and Significance

Shared features: Both traditions accept samsara and karma as governing the universe.

Differences:
Hinduism affirms a divine ground (Brahman) and a purposeful cosmic structure; Buddhism rejects a creator deity and emphasizes causation and non-self.

Impact:
Hindu cosmology encourages devotional and mythological frameworks, while Buddhist cosmology stimulates philosophical inquiry and existential reflection.

2. Conceptions of the Divine

Hinduism

Hinduism blends polytheism with philosophical monism.

Polytheistic Devotion:
Early Vedic religion worshipped nature deities such as Indra. Later, major traditions emerged around Vishnu, Shiva, and Shakti, seeing gods as manifestations of cosmic forces.

Unity in Brahman:
Śaṅkara’s Advaita Vedānta teaches that the many gods are expressions of Brahman, the sole ultimate reality. The Upanishads proclaim: “Brahman is all.”

Doctrine of Avatars:
Vishnu’s ten avatars—such as Rama and Krishna—express divine intervention in history.

Buddhism

Buddhism rejects a creator god and centers on impersonal principles.

Non-theism:
In the Āgamas, the Buddha refuses to speculate on a creator deity, emphasizing the universal law of causation instead of divine agency.

Dharma:
The “Dharma” is both the natural truth of the universe and the Buddha’s teachings. Even the Mahāyāna notion of the Dharmakāya (“Dharma-body”) remains impersonal rather than godlike.

Role of Deities:
Deities such as Indra exist within samsara and are subject to karma, lacking supreme power.

Comparison and Significance

Shared features:
Both traditions transcend simple polytheism, and Brahman parallels the Buddhist Dharmakāya in abstraction.

Differences:
Hinduism affirms divine entities and a sacred cosmic essence; Buddhism asserts non-self and rejects all eternal beings.

Impact:
Theistic devotion shaped the Hindu bhakti movements, while Buddhist non-theism influenced secular and existential philosophies.

3. Human Nature and Liberation

Hinduism

Hinduism sees human nature as a combination of divinity and karmic bondage.

Atman:
The Upanishads teach that the soul (ātman) is eternal and shares the same essence as Brahman, though obscured by ignorance (avidyā).

Moksha:
Liberation is achieved by escaping samsara and realizing the unity of ātman and Brahman.

Paths include:
Jnana Yoga (knowledge)
Bhakti Yoga (devotion)
Karma Yoga (selfless action)

Human Diversity:
Individuals are shaped by the three gunas, and karma determines life circumstances.

Buddhism

Buddhism rejects eternal essence and focuses on the cessation of suffering.

Non-self (Anatta):
The Dhammapada teaches that no permanent self exists—only five aggregates (form, feeling, perception, formations, consciousness) arising and ceasing moment by moment.

Nirvana:
Liberation is attained by eliminating attachment and ignorance, ending the cycle of rebirth.
The main path is the Eightfold Path, while Mahāyāna advocates the bodhisattva ideal.

Suffering (Dukkha):
The Four Noble Truths affirm that life is suffering, its cause is craving, its cessation is possible, and the path leads to awakening.

Comparison and Significance

Shared features:
Liberation from samsara and the removal of ignorance are central to both traditions.

Differences:
Hinduism affirms an eternal soul; Buddhism denies it. Hindu moksha involves union with the divine; Buddhist nirvana represents cessation of clinging.

Impact:
Hindu anthropology supports yoga and devotion, while Buddhist non-self influenced modern psychology and contemplative science.

4. Epistemology and Practice (Sources of Knowledge and Pathways of Practice)
Hinduism

Hindu epistemology and practice are highly diverse.

Sources of knowledge:
The Vedas are considered revealed (śruti).
The Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and Vedanta Sutras provide philosophical foundations.

Paths of practice:
Jnana Yoga: Realization through wisdom, emphasized by Śaṅkara.
Bhakti Yoga: Devotional surrender, promoted by Rāmānuja.
Karma Yoga: Unselfish action taught in the Bhagavad Gita.
Raja Yoga: Patañjali’s Yoga Sutras outline the eight limbs leading to meditative absorption (samadhi).

Ritual practice:
Puja, pilgrimage (such as bathing in the Ganges), and festivals like Diwali.

Buddhism

Buddhist epistemology and practice are more unified around core principles.

Sources of knowledge:
The Tripiṭaka (sūtra, vinaya, abhidharma), including the Āgamas and Mahāyāna texts such as the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras, form the doctrinal basis.

Paths of practice:
Eightfold Path: Central to Theravāda practice.
Six Perfections: Cultivated by Mahāyāna bodhisattvas.
Meditation: Vipassanā (insight) and samatha (calming) lead to awakening.
Pure Land practice: Recitation of Amitābha’s name to attain rebirth in a pure realm.

Ritual variation:
Theravāda discourages ritualism; Vajrayāna incorporates mantras, mandalas, and elaborate offerings.

Comparison and Significance

Shared features:
Both emphasize meditation, ethical conduct, and knowledge as pathways to liberation.

Differences:
Hinduism is grounded in revealed scripture and multiple yoga paths; Buddhism centers on the Buddha’s teaching and meditation.
Hindu ritual life is rich, while Buddhism often favors simplicity.

Impact:
Hindu yoga shaped global wellness culture; Buddhist meditation influenced modern mindfulness and psychology.

5. Contemporary Influence and Significance (as of 2025)

Philosophical convergence:
By 2025, comparative studies of Vedānta and Buddhist emptiness became common in Western academia, with about 10% of U.S. philosophy programs offering related courses.

Cultural influence:
The integration of yoga and mindfulness led to over 50 million practitioners worldwide.

Social significance:
Hindu and Buddhist values inspire interreligious cooperation, such as the 2024 Bangkok Hindu–Buddhist Dialogue on climate action.