Since the founding of Buddhism by Śākyamuni, differences in regions of transmission, historical contexts, and doctrinal interpretations have led to the development of multiple schools. The three most influential contemporary branches—Theravāda Buddhism, Mahāyāna Buddhism, and Vajrayāna Buddhism—share fundamental teachings such as the Four Noble Truths and the Three Marks of Existence, yet differ significantly in goals of practice, methods, and cosmology. The following sections analyze their doctrinal features and historical development.

1. Theravāda Buddhism

Overview and Distribution

Theravāda Buddhism, also known as the “Southern Transmission” or “Teaching of the Elders,” is considered closest to early Buddhism. The name Theravāda means “Doctrine of the Elders.” It spread to Sri Lanka in the 3rd century BCE under Emperor Aśoka and later expanded throughout Southeast Asia. By 2025, it has approximately 150 million adherents, found primarily in Sri Lanka (about 15 million), Thailand (70 million), Myanmar (40 million), Laos, and Cambodia.

Core Teachings

Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path:
Theravāda adheres strictly to the original teachings of Śākyamuni. The core is the Four Noble Truths (dukkha, samudaya, nirodha, magga), with the Eightfold Path as the practical method leading to individual liberation.

Three Marks of Existence:
Impermanence (anicca), non-self (anattā), and nirvana (nirvāṇa) are the criteria for determining authentic Buddhist teachings. The Dhammapada states, “All conditioned things are impermanent; their nature is to arise and pass away.”

Ideal of the Arhat:
The practice goal is to become an arhat—one who has eradicated greed, hatred, and delusion, and has escaped saṃsāra (rebirth). The Ekottarika-āgama refers to the arhat as “one worthy of offerings.”

Sources of Authority

Theravāda takes the Pāli Canon as its authoritative scripture, including the Vinaya Pitaka (discipline), Sutta Pitaka (discourses), and Abhidhamma Pitaka (analysis). Although the Mahāvibhāṣā is not part of the Pāli tradition, it influenced the development of its doctrinal system.

Characteristics and Practice

Self-power practice: Emphasizes individual effort without external salvation. Core practices include meditation (especially Vipassanā, insight meditation) and moral discipline such as the Five Precepts.

Monastic-centered tradition: Monks (bhikkhu) safeguard the teachings, while laypeople (upāsaka) support the sangha through giving (dāna).

Simplicity: Rejects elaborate rituals, focusing on practical cultivation, as seen in Myanmar’s insight meditation tradition.

2. Mahāyāna Buddhism

Overview and Distribution

Mahāyāna Buddhism emerged around the 1st century CE. The term Mahāyāna, meaning “Great Vehicle,” emphasizes the salvation of all beings. By 2025, it has about 300 million followers, primarily in China (about 200 million), Japan (50 million), Korea, and Vietnam. After declining in India, it flourished in East Asia.

Core Teachings

Bodhisattva Path:
The goal is Buddhahood, not just arhatship. Bodhisattvas vow to save all sentient beings and cultivate the Six Perfections: generosity, morality, patience, diligence, meditation, and wisdom. The Lotus Sūtra states, “I shall lead all beings to liberation.”

Emptiness and Compassion:
Nāgārjuna’s Madhyamaka school interprets dependent origination as emptiness (śūnyatā): all phenomena lack inherent nature. The Yogācāra school of Asaṅga emphasizes vijñapti-mātra (“mind-only”), viewing consciousness as the root of reality. Mahāyāna stresses compassion (karuṇā) paired with wisdom (prajñā).

Multiple Buddhas:
Besides Śākyamuni, Buddhas such as Amitābha and Bhaiṣajyaguru provide diverse devotional objects.

Sources of Authority

Mahāyāna scriptures are primarily in Sanskrit and Chinese, including the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras, Lotus Sūtra, Avataṃsaka Sūtra, and Amitābha Sūtra. Treatises such as Nāgārjuna’s Mūlamadhyamakakārikā and the Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra deepen doctrinal theories.

Characteristics and Practice

Diverse methods: Recitation of Buddha names (e.g., Pure Land Amitābha practice), Zen meditation, sutra chanting, and offerings.

Altruistic ethos: Emphasis on benefiting others, exemplified by Avalokiteśvara (Guanyin) who appears to relieve suffering.

Ritual richness: Practices such as China’s Ullambana Festival and Japan’s Obon Dance reflect local cultural integration.

Major Branches

Chan/Zen: Directly points to the mind; attaining awakening through insight.

Pure Land: Faith in Amitābha Buddha; chanting his name to be reborn in the Western Pure Land.

Tiantai and Huayan: Emphasize scriptural interpretation and cosmological harmony, influential in Tang-era Buddhism.

3. Vajrayāna Buddhism

Overview and Distribution

Vajrayāna Buddhism, also called the “Diamond Vehicle,” developed in India around the 7th century and entered Tibet in the 8th century. By 2025, it has about 20 million followers, mainly in Tibet (about 6 million), Bhutan, Mongolia, Russia, and Western Tibetan Buddhist communities (around 500,000 in the U.S.).

Core Teachings

Buddhahood in this very life:
Vajrayāna asserts that one can attain Buddhahood in the present lifetime by activating inherent potential through tantric methods. The Mahāvairocana Tantra teaches, “All sentient beings possess Buddha-nature.”

Unity of body, speech, and mind:
Practice involves mudrā (body), mantra (speech), and mandala visualization (mind), accelerating realization.

Buddha-nature and union practices:
Emphasizes innate Buddha-nature. Some tantras (e.g., Kālacakra) include symbolic or actual union practices, which have been subjects of controversy.

Sources of Authority

Vajrayāna relies on tantric scriptures such as the Mahāvairocana Tantra and Vajraśekhara Tantra. Tibetan Buddhism takes the Kangyur (translated words of the Buddha) and Tengyur (commentaries) as canonical.

Characteristics and Practice

Esoteric rituals: Including empowerment (abhiṣeka), fire offerings, and mandala construction, requiring transmission from a lama (guru).

Protector deities: Such as Mahākāla and Lakṣmī, who safeguard practice.

Symbolic complexity: Ritual objects such as the vajra and bell symbolize wisdom and compassion.

Major Branches

Nyingma (Red School): Rooted in early tantras, founded by Padmasambhava.
Kagyu (White School): Known for the practice of Mahāmudrā.
Sakya (Flower School): Emphasizes the Lamdré (Path and Result) teachings.
Gelug (Yellow School): Founded by Tsongkhapa; led by the Dalai Lama and the most influential as of 2025.

4. Other Minor Schools and Variants

Sarvāstivāda
An early Buddhist school flourishing from the 2nd century BCE to the 7th century CE in Central Asia and India. It upheld the doctrine that “all dharmas exist in the three times,” influencing Mahāyāna treatises before disappearing after the Islamic incursions.

Faxiang School
Founded in Tang-dynasty China by Xuanzang, a branch of Yogācāra emphasizing “consciousness-only.” It declined by the Song dynasty.

New Buddhist Movements
For example, Japan’s Soka Gakkai, based on Nichiren Buddhism, had about 12 million members worldwide by 2025 and emphasizes social engagement.

5. Comparison and Commonalities Among Schools

Commonalities
Three Marks of Existence: Impermanence, non-self, nirvana as a shared foundation.
Karma and rebirth: All recognize causality and reincarnation.
Compassion and wisdom: Universally valued.

Differences

Goal of practice:
Theravāda: arhatship
Mahāyāna: Buddhahood
Vajrayāna: Buddhahood in this lifetime

Methods:
Theravāda: meditative self-effort
Mahāyāna: diverse practices (chanting, meditation, etc.)
Vajrayāna: tantric practices and guru guidance

Cosmology:
Theravāda: relatively simple
Mahāyāna: many Buddhas and Pure Lands
Vajrayāna: esoteric symbolism and mysticism

6. Contemporary Doctrinal Developments (as of 2025)

Theravāda: Maintains traditional forms; insight meditation (e.g., Goenka tradition) has become global.

Mahāyāna: Increasing adaptation to modern contexts, such as Zen integrating psychology and online Pure Land chanting communities.

Vajrayāna: The Dalai Lama promotes universal values; Western practitioners are growing, though Tibetan political pressures affect transmission.