After the passing of Shakyamuni (around 483 BCE), Buddhism evolved from a localized monastic community into a world religion. Its historical development spans more than 2,500 years, marked by phases of division, expansion, decline, and revival.

1. Early Buddhism and Sectarian Division (5th century BCE – 1st century BCE)

Transmission and Councils

After Shakyamuni’s death, his teachings were preserved by his disciples.
The First Council (c. 483 BCE) was held at Rajgir, presided over by Mahakassapa.
Ananda recited the Sutra-pitaka, and Upali recited the Vinaya-pitaka, establishing the early Buddhist canon.

The Second Council (c. 383 BCE), held at Vaishali, debated issues of monastic discipline and resulted in a split between the Mahasanghika (Great Assembly) and Sthavira (Elders), marking the beginning of sectarian (Nikaya) Buddhism.

Development of Sectarian Buddhism

From the 3rd to 1st centuries BCE, Buddhism divided into 18 schools (such as Sarvāstivāda, Sautrāntika, and Sammitiya).

The Sarvāstivāda school taught that “all dharmas of the three times exist” and developed the Abhidharma literature, such as the Great Commentary on the Abhidharma.

The Mahasanghika school emphasized the superhuman qualities of the Buddha, influencing later Mahayana thought.

The Third Council (c. 250 BCE), sponsored by Emperor Ashoka in Pataliputra, further organized the canon and dispatched missionaries abroad.

Ashoka’s Promotion of Buddhism

Ashoka (r. 268–232 BCE) of the Maurya Empire adopted Buddhism and constructed 84,000 stupas (e.g., Sanchi Stupa).
He sent missionaries—such as his son Mahinda to Sri Lanka—and promoted Buddhism in Myanmar and Central Asia.
His rock and pillar edicts (such as the Sarnath pillar) spread Buddhist ethics and accelerated its internationalization.

2. Rise and Expansion of Mahayana Buddhism (1st century CE – 7th century CE)

Birth of Mahayana Buddhism

In the 1st century CE, Mahayana Buddhism emerged, criticizing the “Hinayana” (later called Theravada) focus on personal liberation and promoting the Bodhisattva Path to save all beings.

Key scriptures included the Prajnaparamita Sutras, the Lotus Sutra, and the Avatamsaka Sutra.
Nagarjuna (2nd century) founded the Madhyamaka school, articulating the doctrine of emptiness (śūnyatā).
Asanga and Vasubandhu (4th century) established the Yogacara school, teaching “Consciousness-only.”

Spread to Central Asia and China

By the 2nd century BCE, Buddhism traveled through the Silk Road into Central Asia.
Under the Kushan Empire (1st–3rd centuries), King Kanishka supported the Fourth Council (c. 100 CE), compiling Abhidharma texts and encouraging Mahayana growth.

In 67 CE, Buddhism entered China during the Han dynasty, and the White Horse Temple was built.
In the 4th century, the translator Kumarajiva accelerated Mahayana development.
During the Tang dynasty (618–907), Chan (Zen), Pure Land, Tiantai, and Huayan schools flourished.

Spread to East and Southeast Asia

Korea: Introduced in the 4th century (372 in Silla, 375 in Goguryeo).

Japan: Introduced in the 6th century (552), promoted by Prince Shotoku; Shingon (Kukai) and Jodo Shinshu (Shinran) later developed.

Southeast Asia: Theravada Buddhism arrived in the 3rd century CE.
Srivijaya (7th–13th centuries) became the maritime Buddhist center.

Emergence of Tibetan Buddhism

In the 7th century, Buddhism entered Tibet under King Songtsen Gampo, influenced by Nepal and Tang China.
In the 8th century, Padmasambhava introduced Vajrayana Buddhism and founded Samye Monastery, establishing Tibetan Buddhist foundations.

3. Decline and Regional Transformation (7th century – 13th century)

Decline in India

From the 7th century onward, Buddhism in India faced pressure from Hindu revivalism and Islamic expansion.

After the Gupta period (4th–6th centuries), Hinduism reabsorbed many Buddhist ideas.
In the 12th century, Turkic Muslim invasions devastated Buddhist centers.
In 1193, Bakhtiyar Khilji destroyed Nalanda and Vikramashila Universities.
Monks fled to Tibet and Sri Lanka, and Buddhism nearly disappeared from India.

Decline in Central Asia

In the 8th century, the Umayyad Caliphate conquered Bukhara and Samarkand.
Buddhist monasteries were destroyed, and most converted to Islam.
The Buddhist culture of Bamiyan collapsed; by the 10th century Buddhism vanished from Central Asia.

Prosperity in East and Southeast Asia

After the Tang dynasty, Buddhism blended with Confucianism and Daoism in China. During the Song dynasty (960–1279), Chan and Pure Land traditions thrived.

The Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) promoted Tibetan Buddhism.

Theravada Buddhism was consolidated in Myanmar’s Pagan Kingdom (11th–13th centuries) and Thailand’s Sukhothai Kingdom (13th–15th centuries).

Independent Development of Tibetan Buddhism

In the 13th century, the Mongol Empire supported Tibetan Buddhism.
The Sakya master, Phagpa, served as Imperial Preceptor.
In the 14th century, Tsongkhapa founded the Gelug (Yellow Hat) School, shaping modern Tibetan Buddhism.

4. Late Medieval to Early Modern Period (13th – 19th centuries)

Stability in Southeast Asia

The Ayutthaya Kingdom of Thailand (14th–18th centuries) and the Toungoo Dynasty of Myanmar (16th–18th centuries) strengthened Theravada Buddhism.
Sri Lanka, supported by Sinhala dynasties, remained a Theravada center.

Transformation in East Asia

In Japan:
Kamakura period (12th–14th centuries): Jodo Shinshu and Nichiren Buddhism emerged.
Edo period (17th–19th centuries): Buddhism became increasingly secularized.

In China:
During the Ming and Qing dynasties (14th–19th centuries), Buddhism declined but Pure Land practice blended into popular religion.

Colonial Impact and Buddhist Revival

In the 19th century, European colonialism affected Buddhist territories:
Sri Lanka fell under British rule (1815),
Myanmar under British India (from 1824).

Revival movements arose.
In Sri Lanka, Anagarika Dharmapala revived Theravada tradition.
In Thailand, King Rama IV (1851–1868) reformed the monastic order.

5. Modern and Contemporary Buddhism (20th century – 2025)
Spread to the West

In the 20th century, Buddhism reached Europe and North America.
D. T. Suzuki introduced Zen; Thich Nhat Hanh spread mindfulness meditation.
By 2025, the United States had around 4 million Buddhists, mostly converts.

Revival and Challenges in Asia

China
After 1949, Buddhism was suppressed; after reforms beginning in 1978, it revived rapidly.
The Four Sacred Mountains became major centers.
By 2025, about 200 million people identified with Buddhism.

Japan
Buddhism became secularized; Jodo Shinshu and Nichiren remain dominant, with about 50 million adherents, though youth participation declines.

India
B. R. Ambedkar led 500,000 Dalits into Buddhism in 1956, sparking a revival.
By 2025, India had around 10 million Buddhists.

Southeast Asia
Theravada traditions remain strong in Thailand (70 million Buddhists) and Myanmar (40 million), though ethnic tensions such as the Rohingya crisis reveal nationalist pressures.

Globalization

Buddhism adapts to modern society through online meditation and mindfulness-based therapies.
Tibetan Buddhism globalized after the Dalai Lama’s exile in 1959, gaining hundreds of thousands of followers in the West.

Summary as of 2025

As of February 2025, Buddhism has spread from India across Asia and the West, experiencing scholastic division (Mahayana, Theravada, Vajrayana), decline (in India and Central Asia), and flourishing (in East and Southeast Asia). In the modern world, it presents a diverse and globally integrated religious landscape.