Shakyamuni (Siddhartha Gautama, c. 563–483 BCE) is the founder of Buddhism and is revered as the “Buddha” (meaning “the Enlightened One”). His life and teachings laid the foundation of Buddhism and have influenced the world for over 2,500 years. His biography comes mainly from early Buddhist scriptures such as the Dīrgha Āgama, Buddhist Birth Stories, and the later Buddhacarita by Aśvaghoṣa. The following introduces him in detail from the perspectives of his life, enlightenment, teaching career, and influence.

1. Overview of His Life

Birth and Childhood

Shakyamuni was born around 563 BCE (the exact year remains debated according to different traditions) in Lumbini (present-day southern Nepal), then part of the Kingdom of Kapilavastu located in the Ganges Basin. His father, King Suddhodana, was the leader of the Shakya clan, and his mother, Queen Maya, died seven days after giving birth. He was raised by his aunt Prajapati Gautami.

According to legend, auspicious signs surrounded his birth: Queen Maya dreamed of a white elephant entering her womb. After birth, the infant took seven steps and declared, “In the heavens above and on the earth below, I alone am the World-Honored One.” (Later interpreted as a symbolic representation of his future awakening.) The sage Asita predicted that he would become either a great king or a spiritual sage.

Life as a Prince

Named Siddhartha Gautama (“He who accomplishes his goals”), he enjoyed royal privileges, residing in luxurious palaces and learning martial arts, Vedic literature, and statecraft. In an effort to prevent the prophecy of renunciation from being fulfilled, his father shielded him from exposure to suffering. At age sixteen he married his cousin Yasodhara, and they had a son named Rahula (“obstacle”).

The Motivation to Renounce the World

At age twenty-nine, Siddhartha encountered the “Four Sights”: an old man, a sick man, a corpse, and an ascetic. These scenes shattered his sheltered illusions and exposed the impermanence and suffering of human life. Determined to seek liberation from this cycle, he left the palace one night, shaved his head, donned a monk’s robe, and began a life of spiritual pursuit.

2. The Process of Enlightenment

Six Years of Ascetic Practice

After renunciation, Siddhartha sought guidance from renowned teachers such as Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta, learning meditation and metaphysical techniques, but he found their teachings insufficient for ultimate liberation. He then joined a group of ascetics near the Nairanjana River, practicing severe austerities for six years, starving himself to the brink of death. Realizing that extreme asceticism was futile, he abandoned it and turned to a “Middle Way.”

Enlightenment Under the Bodhi Tree

Around age thirty-five (c. 528 BCE), Siddhartha sat in meditation beneath a pippala tree in Bodh Gaya and vowed not to rise until he achieved awakening. He endured temptations and assaults from the demon Mara—symbolic of desire, fear, and delusion—and remained steadfast. After forty-nine days of meditation, he attained enlightenment at dawn and realized the Four Noble Truths:

The Truth of Suffering (Dukkha): Birth, aging, illness, and death are all suffering.

The Truth of the Origin of Suffering (Samudaya): Suffering arises from craving, aversion, and ignorance.

The Truth of the Cessation of Suffering (Nirodha): Eliminating craving brings liberation—Nirvana.

The Truth of the Path (Magga): The Noble Eightfold Path—right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration—is the way to liberation.

He proclaimed himself the Buddha—the “Fully and Perfectly Enlightened One.”

3. His Teaching Career

The First Turning of the Dharma Wheel

After enlightenment, the Buddha went to the Deer Park at Sarnath, where he taught the Four Noble Truths to the five ascetics who had once practiced with him. This event, known as the “First Turning of the Dharma Wheel,” resulted in the first five disciples attaining the level of Arhat. The Buddhist monastic community (Sangha) was thus established, consisting of monks, nuns, male lay followers, and female lay followers.

Forty-five Years of Teaching

For the next forty-five years, the Buddha traveled across the Ganges Basin—Magadha, Kosala, Vaishali, and other regions—teaching people of all social classes, including kings (such as King Bimbisara), nobles, and common folk. His teachings were practical and concise. As the Dhammapada states:
“Do no evil, do all good, purify your mind—this is the teaching of all Buddhas.”

He recruited influential disciples such as

Sariputta (foremost in wisdom),

Maudgalyayana (foremost in miraculous powers), and

Ananda (foremost in memory).

Women also played important roles: Prajapati Gautami and Khema were key figures in the development of the nuns’ community.

Passing into Nirvana

At about age eighty (c. 483 BCE), the Buddha passed away in Kushinagar between two sal trees, entering Parinirvana. His final instructions to Ananda were:
“Take the Dharma and the Vinaya as your teacher.”
Before dying, he urged the disciples:
“Be lamps unto yourselves; be lamps unto the Dharma.”

4. Historical Authenticity and Sources

Buddhist Records

The Buddha’s life was orally transmitted by his disciples and later compiled into canonical works such as the Vinaya and the Dīrgha Āgama. The Buddhacarita (1st century CE) added poetic and miraculous elements. These texts serve religious rather than historical purposes, and many details (such as the exact birth date) remain disputed.

Non-Buddhist Evidence

Archaeological findings—such as Ashoka’s pillar at Sarnath—and references in ancient Indian literature (such as mentions of Kapilavastu in the Mahābhārata) provide indirect historical support. Buddhist art from the Kushan Empire (e.g., Gandhara sculptures) also reflects his historical influence.

Scholarly Views

Modern scholars (e.g., Richard Gombrich) generally affirm that Shakyamuni was a real historical figure. His enlightenment and teaching career are viewed as credible, while supernatural events—such as battles with Mara—are interpreted as later embellishments.

5. Teachings and Core Concepts

The Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path

The Buddha’s teachings center on diagnosing human suffering and providing a practical path for liberation. The Eightfold Path outlines ethical conduct, meditation, and wisdom, forming the basis of Buddhist practice.

Impermanence, No-Self, and Dependent Origination

The Three Marks of Existence—impermanence (anicca), no-self (anatta), and the tranquility of Nirvana—form the philosophical core. All phenomena arise through causes and conditions (pratītyasamutpāda).

Compassion and Nonviolence

The Buddha emphasized compassion (karuṇā) and non-harm (ahiṃsā), opposing the animal sacrifices of the Brahmanical religion. The Dhammapada teaches:
“Hatred is never appeased by hatred; only by love is hatred appeased.”

6. Influence and Legacy

Religious Influence

The Buddha’s teachings gave rise to Buddhism, and the Sangha preserved his doctrinal lineage. He is regarded as the first Buddha of this age; later figures such as Maitreya continue this spiritual tradition. Vesak, the most important Buddhist festival, commemorates his birth, enlightenment, and passing.

Cultural Influence

Buddhism profoundly shaped Asian art (e.g., Dunhuang murals), philosophy (e.g., Nagarjuna’s Madhyamaka), and literature (e.g., the Lotus Sutra). Its principles of nonviolence influenced leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi.

Social Impact

By rejecting the caste system and welcoming women into the monastic order, the Buddha promoted early ideas of social equality.

Continuing Influence as of 2025

As of February 2025, Shakyamuni remains the spiritual center for over 500 million Buddhists worldwide. His image is found in temples and art globally, and practices such as mindfulness derived from Buddhist meditation continue to influence modern society.