Buddhism originated in ancient India in the 5th century BCE. Its founder was Siddhartha Gautama, known as Śākyamuni. It developed from a local spiritual tradition into a world religion, influencing East Asia, Southeast Asia, Central Asia, and even the West. Spanning over 2,500 years, the history of Buddhism has undergone phases of expansion, division, decline, and revival. The following outlines its historical trajectory in chronological order.

1. Early Buddhism (5th Century BCE – 3rd Century BCE)

Founding and Early Spread

Buddhism began when Siddhartha Gautama attained enlightenment around 528 BCE under the Bodhi Tree at Bodh Gaya, realizing the Four Noble Truths (suffering, origin, cessation, path). He became the “Buddha” (the awakened one). He then delivered his first sermon at Sarnath, teaching the five ascetics and establishing the monastic community (Sangha).

In its earliest stage, Buddhism was transmitted orally. Its teaching focused on liberation from Samsara (the cycle of rebirth), and its foundational discourses were later compiled into the Agamas.

During the Buddha’s roughly eighty-year lifespan, Buddhism remained concentrated in the Ganges Basin in regions such as Kapilavastu and Magadha. His disciples—such as Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana—expanded the influence of the Sangha.

Support from the Maurya Empire

After the Buddha’s passing (around 483 BCE at Kushinagar), the Sangha preserved and transmitted the teachings. In the 3rd century BCE, Emperor Ashoka (r. 268–232 BCE) of the Maurya Dynasty converted to Buddhism, pushing it to its first great peak.

Having been a fierce conqueror, Ashoka repented after the Kalinga War and adopted nonviolence (ahimsa). He sponsored the construction of 84,000 stupas—such as the Sanchi Stupa—and sent missionaries, including his son Mahinda, to Sri Lanka and beyond.

The First Buddhist Council

Three months after the Buddha’s death, Mahākāśyapa convened the First Council at Rajgir to organize and standardize the teachings, establishing the Vinaya (discipline) and Sutra (discourse) collections. This laid the foundation for orthodox Buddhism.

2. Division and Sectarian Buddhism (3rd Century BCE – 1st Century CE)

The Second Council and the First Major Split

Around the late 4th century BCE (c. 383 BCE), the Second Council at Vaishali debated issues regarding monastic discipline. The Sangha split into two major factions:

Mahāsāṃghika — favoring more flexible discipline

Sthavira (Elders) — adhering strictly to tradition

This was the first major schism in Buddhist history, eventually leading to 18 or more sects, including the Sarvāstivāda and Sautrāntika schools.

Philosophical Development

During the sectarian period, Buddhist doctrine expanded from the early Four Noble Truths to systems such as dependent origination (pratītyasamutpāda) and the Three Marks of Existence (impermanence, non-self, and nirvana).

The Sarvāstivādins proposed the doctrine of “existence of the three times,” which later influenced the compilation of the Abhidharma (higher teachings).

Spread to Central Asia

From the 2nd century BCE onward, Buddhism spread along the Silk Road into Central Asia, including Gandhara and Bactria. The Kushan Empire (1st–3rd centuries CE), especially Kanishka, supported Buddhism. Kanishka convened the Fourth Council at Kashmir, which systematized Buddhist scholasticism.

3. The Rise and Spread of Mahāyāna Buddhism (1st Century – 7th Century)

Birth of Mahāyāna

Around the 1st century CE, Mahāyāna Buddhism emerged, critiquing the sectarian “Hīnayāna” focus on individual liberation. Mahāyāna emphasized universal salvation. Texts such as the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras and the Lotus Sutra promoted the Bodhisattva path, balancing compassion and wisdom.

Nāgārjuna (2nd century CE) founded the Madhyamaka (Middle Way) school, using “emptiness” (śūnyatā) to interpret dependent origination.

Spread into East Asia

In the 1st century CE, Buddhism entered China during the Han Dynasty via the Silk Road. White Horse Temple (est. 67 CE) became the first official Buddhist temple. In the 4th century, Kumārajīva’s translations accelerated Mahāyāna’s development. The Tang Dynasty (618–907) was a golden age, with the rise of Chan, Pure Land, and Tiantai schools.

Buddhism spread to Korea in the 6th century and to Japan in the 7th century, where Prince Shōtoku promoted it.

Southeast Asia and Tibet

By the 3rd century, Buddhism entered Myanmar and Thailand. Srivijaya (7th–13th centuries) became a maritime Buddhist center.

In the 7th century, Buddhism entered Tibet. In the 8th century, Padmasambhava introduced Vajrayāna, laying the foundation of Tibetan Buddhism.

4. Decline and Transformation (7th Century – 13th Century)
Decline in India

Beginning in the 7th century, Buddhism in India faced dual pressure from Islam and Hinduism.

Collapse in Central Asia

In the 8th century, the Umayyad Caliphate conquered Central Asia, destroying Buddhist monasteries such as those in Bamiyan. By the 10th century, Buddhism had nearly vanished from the region.

In 1193, the Turko-Afghan military leader Bakhtiyar Khilji destroyed Nalanda University, annihilating the last major Buddhist center in India. Monks fled to Tibet and Sri Lanka. Buddhism nearly disappeared from its homeland.

Prosperity in East and Southeast Asia

After the Tang Dynasty, Buddhism blended with Confucianism and Daoism. In the Song Dynasty (960–1279), Chan and Pure Land flourished. In Japan, Shingon and Jōdo Shinshū emerged. In Southeast Asia, Theravāda Buddhism took root in Myanmar (Pagan Dynasty) and Thailand (Sukhothai Kingdom).

5. Late Medieval to Early Modern Period (13th Century – 19th Century)

Independent Development of Tibetan Buddhism

In the 13th century, the Mongol Empire patronized Tibetan Buddhism. During the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368), the Sakya lamas held great authority. In the 14th century, Tsongkhapa established the Gelug school, and the Dalai Lama institution emerged in the 17th century.

Theravāda Stability in Southeast Asia

The Ayutthaya Kingdom of Thailand (14th–18th centuries) and the Toungoo Dynasty of Myanmar (16th–18th centuries) strengthened Theravāda institutions. Monks became central to education and politics.

Colonial Pressure and Buddhist Revival

In the 19th century, European colonialism weakened Buddhist regions such as Sri Lanka and Myanmar. Meanwhile, Buddhist revival movements emerged. In Sri Lanka, Anagarika Dharmapala became a leading reformer resisting Christian missions.

6. Modern and Contemporary Buddhism (20th Century – 2025)
Spread to the West

In the 20th century, Buddhism entered Europe and North America. D.T. Suzuki popularized Zen, while Vietnamese monk Thich Nhat Hanh introduced mindfulness practice. By 2025, the United States had an estimated four million Buddhists.

Asian Revival and Contemporary Challenges

In China, Buddhism was suppressed after 1949 but revived after the Reform and Opening era, with major temples recovering. Japanese Buddhism became increasingly secularized. Thailand and Myanmar maintained strong monastic traditions. In India, B.R. Ambedkar led a major Buddhist revival through his 1956 mass conversion movement.

Summary as of 26 February 2025

As of February 26, 2025, Buddhism—born in India, expanded across Asia, and adopting flexible forms—remains a major religious and philosophical force in East and Southeast Asia. Its resilience and adaptability are reflected in its global influence on culture, art, ethics, and philosophy.