1. Background and Definitions

The term “Islamic terrorism” generally refers to acts of violence carried out in the name of Islam, especially those that use fear to achieve political, religious, or ideological objectives. These actions are typically conducted by non-state actors (such as terrorist organizations) and do not reflect the mainstream doctrines of Islam nor the everyday practices of the overwhelming majority of Muslims. However, certain extremist factions reinterpret Islamic teachings—such as jihad—to justify violence, which has contributed to an external perception linking Islam with terrorism.

As of February 26, 2025, the global Muslim population is around 2 billion, and the vast majority reject violent extremism. Nonetheless, the actions of a small number of organizations (such as al-Qaeda and ISIS) have heavily influenced the stereotype of “Islamic terror.”

This section examines the phenomenon from both historical and contemporary perspectives, including its points of interaction with Buddhism.

2. Historical Islam and Violent Expansion

Early Expansion and Buddhism (7th–10th centuries)

Islam arose in 7th-century Arabia, and after the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632, the Rashidun Caliphate rapidly expanded into Buddhist regions in Central Asia. Under the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), the general Qutayba ibn Muslim conquered Bukhara, Samarkand, and other areas between 705 and 715, destroying Buddhist monasteries and forcing monks to flee or convert.

For example, the Buddhist center of Bamiyan (in today’s Afghanistan) was conquered in the 8th century. Although its giant Buddha statues survived at the time, the monastic community collapsed and Buddhist activity dwindled. These events were part of military conquest rather than “terrorism” in the modern sense, but the targeted destruction of religious institutions foreshadows later patterns of sectarian violence.

South Asia (11th–13th centuries)

Beginning in the 11th century, Turkic Muslim invasions caused devastating damage to Buddhism in India. Mahmud of Ghazni (971–1030) repeatedly raided northwest India, destroying Buddhist sacred sites in Gandhāra. In 1193, Bakhtiyar Khilji, a general of Muhammad of Ghor, burned Nalanda University, killed monks, and destroyed its libraries. This event symbolized the effective end of Buddhism in its homeland.

Again, the violence was not “terrorism” in the modern ideological sense, but the pattern—systematic attacks on a religious community—bears resemblance to later sectarian extremism.

Southeast Asia (13th–16th centuries)

From the 13th century onward, Islam spread through maritime trade into Southeast Asia, putting pressure on Buddhist communities. After the decline of the Buddhist-Hindu Majapahit kingdom in Java, the Muslim Demak Sultanate rose to power in the 15th century. Many Buddhist temples were abandoned, and local populations converted to Islam.

The abandonment of Borobudur reflects this transition: royal patronage shifted to Muslim rulers, causing Buddhist culture to fade. The process was partly peaceful but did involve instances of coercion.

3. The Rise of Modern “Islamic Terrorism” (20th century–present)

Transformation of the Concept of Jihad

Traditionally, jihad referred to inner spiritual struggle or the defense of the community in war. In the 20th century, however, certain extremist groups reinterpreted it as a call for global violence. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 stimulated militant mobilization, eventually leading to the formation of al-Qaeda in 1988 by Osama bin Laden, which promoted war against the West and against “infidels.” This ideology influenced the later rise of ISIS, which declared a “caliphate” in 2014 and became infamous for extreme brutality.

Major Incidents and Cases Involving Buddhism

2001: Destruction of the Bamiyan Buddhas
The Taliban destroyed the Bamiyan Buddha statues, labeling them “idolatrous.” Although no people were killed, the act was an attack on Buddhist cultural heritage with global symbolic impact.

9/11 Attacks (2001)
Al-Qaeda’s attacks in the United States killed nearly 3,000 people and marked the globalization of Islamic terrorism. Although not aimed at Buddhist communities, the repercussions affected Buddhist regions (e.g., intensified insurgency in Thailand’s south).

ISIS and Buddhist Regions (2010s)
ISIS expanded into Southeast Asia. In the 2017 Battle of Marawi in the Philippines, the ISIS-affiliated Maute Group seized the city; although Christians were the main target, Buddhists were displaced as well.

In southern Thailand (Pattani, etc.), Muslim separatist groups occasionally attacked Buddhist monks—such as a 2019 temple shooting that killed two monks.

4. Contemporary Situation (as of 2025)

Global Distribution and Impact

By 2025, Islamic terrorism remains concentrated in the Middle East (Syria, Iraq), South Asia (Afghanistan, Pakistan), and Africa (Nigeria, Somalia). According to the Global Terrorism Index, 8,352 deaths from terrorist attacks occurred in 2023, most linked to Islamic extremist groups such as ISIS affiliates. Although ISIS lost its territory in 2019, around 20 branches remained active globally by 2025.

Contemporary Conflicts Involving Buddhists

Rohingya Crisis in Myanmar
In Myanmar, where 89% of the population is Buddhist, the conflict with the Muslim Rohingya minority (about 1 million people in 2025) escalated after 2017. Buddhist nationalist groups such as Ma Ba Tha supported the military campaign that displaced 700,000 Rohingya.

This is not Islamic aggression toward Buddhism but rather violence by Buddhist extremists against Muslims—a reverse manifestation of historical tensions.

Southern Thailand Insurgency
Since 2004, the separatist insurgency in Thailand’s Muslim-majority southern provinces has caused thousands of deaths. Buddhist monks and temples have been targeted. As recently as 2023, a bombing in a Buddhist village killed five people.

Trends and Challenges

Decline and resurgence of extremism: While al-Qaeda and ISIS have weakened, new factions—such as ISIS-K (ISKP)—remain active; in 2024, ISKP planned an attack on U.S. election day (foiled in Oklahoma).

Digital radicalization: Extremist groups use online platforms (e.g., Telegram) for recruitment, influencing some individuals even in Buddhist countries like Indonesia.

Social backlash: Anti-Muslim sentiment has increased in parts of Europe (e.g., the 2025 Mulhouse stabbing case) and in Asia (e.g., Myanmar), intensifying religious polarizations.

5. Reflections on Islam–Buddhism Interactions

Historical Continuities

Islam’s historical “pressure” on Buddhism (destruction of monasteries in Central Asia and India, displacement in Southeast Asia) was rooted in military conquest and cultural competition, not in modern ideological terrorism. Yet the patterns—coercion, destruction of religious symbols, conflict between communities—echo in contemporary extremist actions.

Modern Dialogue and Mitigation

By 2025, peaceful engagement between Muslims and Buddhists is increasing. Examples include:

Thai Buddhist monks and Muslim leaders cooperating in 2024 disaster relief

Indonesian Buddhists and Muslims jointly protecting Borobudur

Interfaith dialogues, such as the 2024 Bangkok Buddhist-Islamic Summit

Extremist violence still hinders reconciliation, but dialogue is expanding.

Cultural Impact

Regions where Islam replaced Buddhism (e.g., Central Asia) retain Buddhist archaeological sites (like Bamiyan), reflecting traces of earlier coexistence. Meanwhile, in Buddhist-majority areas (e.g., Myanmar), anti-Muslim violence reveals deeply rooted historical complexities.

6. Conclusion

The association between Islam and terrorism arises from the actions of a small number of extremist groups and does not represent mainstream Islamic teachings. Historically, Islam’s pressure on Buddhism resulted largely from conquest and cultural competition; modern “Islamic terrorism” is more ideological and has limited direct impact on Buddhism, though indirect conflicts (such as in southern Thailand and Myanmar) persist.

As of 2025, with extremism declining and interreligious dialogue increasing, tensions between Islam and Buddhism may gradually ease. Nevertheless, geopolitical and social challenges continue to shape this relationship.