Muhammad (570–632 CE) is the founder of Islam and is revered by Muslims as the “Messenger of God” (Rasūl Allāh) and the “Seal of the Prophets.” Accounts of his life come primarily from the Qur’an, the Hadith (records of Muhammad’s sayings and actions), and early biographies such as Ibn Hisham’s Sīrat Rasūl Allāh. As both a historical and religious figure, Muhammad was a spiritual leader as well as a political and military commander, and his influence shaped the entire Islamic civilization.

1. Overview of His Life

Early Life (570–610 CE)

Muhammad was born in 570 CE in Mecca on the Arabian Peninsula, during the “Age of Ignorance” (Jāhiliyyah), an era dominated by polytheistic beliefs and tribal structures. He belonged to the Quraysh tribe, the Banu Hashim clan. His father, Abdullah, died before his birth, and his mother, Aminah, passed away when he was six. He was raised first by his grandfather, Abdul Muttalib, and later by his uncle Abu Talib.

His orphaned childhood made him mature early. As a young man he worked as a shepherd and later participated in trade. At 25, he was employed by the wealthy widow Khadijah to manage her caravans. Impressed by his honesty—he was widely known as al-Amīn (“the trustworthy”)—she proposed marriage. They wed in 595 and had two sons (both died young) and four daughters. Later he had another son, Ibrahim, with Maria al-Qibtiyya, who also died in infancy. His daughter Fatimah would become especially significant in Islamic history.

Muhammad often retreated to the Cave of Hira for meditation, reflecting on the inequalities and moral corruption he saw in Meccan society.

Receiving Revelation (610–613 CE)

At age 40, during one of his retreats to Hira, Muhammad received his first revelation. The angel Gabriel appeared and commanded: “Recite in the name of your Lord who created…” (Qur’an 96:1). Terrified, Muhammad returned home; Khadijah and her Christian relative Waraqah ibn Nawfal affirmed the divine nature of the revelation, likening it to what Moses had received.

For the next three years, Muhammad preached secretly. His earliest followers included Khadijah, his cousin Ali, his adopted son Zayd, and his close companion Abu Bakr.

Public Preaching and Persecution (613–622 CE)

In 613 he openly declared his message: belief in one God, condemnation of idolatry, and a call to justice. This threatened the Quraysh elite, whose wealth depended on the polytheistic pilgrimage economy. Persecution intensified: believers were beaten and tortured, especially slaves and the poor. Muhammad himself was protected by his clan and thus spared direct harm.

In 616 some believers fled to Christian Abyssinia, where the king granted them refuge. In 619, the “Year of Sorrow,” Khadijah and Abu Talib both died, leaving Muhammad without protection. Social and economic boycotts worsened his hardship.

In 621, people from Yathrib (later Medina) invited him to mediate their tribal conflicts. In 622 he and his followers migrated there—the Hijra, which marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar.

Medina and the Final Years (622–632 CE)

In Medina, Muhammad founded a religious and political community, establishing the Constitution of Medina to regulate relations among Muslims, Jews, and polytheists. He expanded his influence through diplomacy and warfare:

Battle of Badr (624): a decisive Muslim victory.

Battle of the Trench (627): the Muslims successfully repelled a large coalition army.

Treaty of Hudaybiyyah (628): a truce with the Quraysh, allowing future pilgrimage.

In 630, Muhammad peacefully re-entered Mecca, destroyed its idols, and consecrated the Kaaba as Islam’s holiest shrine.

In 632, during his “Farewell Pilgrimage,” he delivered a sermon emphasizing equality:
“There is no superiority of an Arab over a non-Arab except in piety.”

He died on June 8, 632, at the age of 63.

2. Historical Sources and Reliability

Muslim Sources
The Qur’an gives limited biographical information, but the Hadith and biographies—compiled decades or centuries later—preserve detailed narratives from the Muslim scholarly tradition.

Non-Muslim Evidence
Contemporary Byzantine and Persian records corroborate the existence of a leader among the Arabs in the early 7th century, confirming Muhammad as a historical figure.

Scholarly Views
Modern scholars debate the accuracy of early Islamic sources. Some (like Patricia Crone and Michael Cook) argue that many traditions were shaped by later politics. Others (such as W. Montgomery Watt) consider the core narrative historically credible, especially Muhammad’s unification of Arabia.

3. Teachings and Core Principles

Monotheism
Muhammad taught strict monotheism (tawḥīd): God is one, eternal, and incomparable. Associating God with partners—polytheism or the Christian Trinity—was denounced as shirk (“idolatry”).

Social Justice
He condemned exploitation, urged care for the poor, and instituted zakāt (obligatory almsgiving). The Qur’an repeatedly commands kindness to orphans, widows, and the needy.

Obedience and the Last Judgment
Muhammad warned of the Day of Judgment and instructed believers to fulfill the Five Pillars: faith, prayer, fasting, almsgiving, and the pilgrimage to Mecca.

4. Influence and Legacy

Religious Legacy
Muhammad’s revelations form the Qur’an; his example, preserved in Hadith, guides Muslim ethics, law, and daily life. He is regarded as the final prophet in the Abrahamic tradition.

Political and Military Legacy
He unified the Arabian tribes and established a model of governance in which religion and political authority were intertwined. His strategies and treaties shaped later Islamic states.

Cultural Legacy
His rejection of idolatry profoundly transformed Arabian art and culture; his emphasis on learning supported the later Islamic Golden Age—although some modern interpretations of Islamic theology have been seen as restricting intellectual development.

Controversies and Interpretations
Non-Muslim critics have questioned his involvement in warfare and his multiple marriages. Muslims interpret these actions within their historical context and emphasize his compassion and justice.

5. Continuing Influence as of 2025

As of February 26, 2025, Muhammad remains the central figure for nearly two billion Muslims. His name is recited in prayers, and his example shapes religious, social, and political life across the Muslim world. In anti-colonial movements, he has symbolized unity and resistance, though in many Islamic states his legacy is also invoked to justify limiting the religious freedom of non-Muslims.