Islam originated in the 7th century on the Arabian Peninsula. It is a monotheistic religion centered on the Qur’an, founded by Muhammad. Its history spans more than 1,400 years, during which it grew from a local belief system into a global religion. As of 2025, Islam has approximately two billion adherents, accounting for about 25% of the world’s population. Its historical development may be outlined in the following stages.

1. Early History and the Founding of Islam (610–632 CE)

Background of Its Emergence

Islam was born in Mecca on the Arabian Peninsula, a region immersed in tribal culture and polytheistic worship, traditionally referred to as the Age of Ignorance (Jahiliyyah). Mecca served as both a commercial hub and a religious center; the Kaaba housed numerous tribal idols and attracted pilgrims. There were also a small number of monotheists in the region, including Jews, Christians, and the Hanifs—Arab seekers of the One God.

Muhammad was born in 570 CE into the Quraysh tribe. He was known for his integrity and earned the title Al-Amin (“the trustworthy”). At the age of forty (610 CE), while meditating in the Cave of Hira, he received his first revelation transmitted by the angel Gabriel (Jibril): “Recite in the name of your Lord who created…” (Qur’an 96:1). This marked the birth of Islam.

The Meccan Period (610–622 CE)

Muhammad began preaching the oneness of God, denouncing idol worship and calling for moral reform. His message threatened the economic and religious interests of the Quraysh elite, and persecution followed. His early followers were mainly the poor, slaves, and close friends and relatives, including his wife Khadijah, his cousin Ali, and his companion Abu Bakr.

In 619 CE, the deaths of Khadijah and Muhammad’s uncle Abu Talib deprived him of protection, worsening the situation.

In 622 CE, Muhammad and his followers migrated to Yathrib (later Medina), an event known as the Hijra (“migration”), which marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar.

The Medinan Period (622–632 CE)

In Medina, Muhammad established a religious-political community and drafted the Constitution of Medina, uniting Muslims, Jews, and local polytheists under a shared civic order. Through diplomacy and military campaigns, his influence expanded. A decisive moment came in 624 CE with the Muslim victory over Meccan forces at the Battle of Badr.

In 630 CE, Muhammad peacefully re-entered Mecca and cleansed the Kaaba of idols, dedicating it as the sanctuary of Islam.

In 632 CE, shortly before his death, he delivered his Farewell Sermon at Mount Arafat, emphasizing equality and unity. By this time, most of Arabia had embraced Islam.

2. The Era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs (632–661 CE)

The Four Caliphs

Following Muhammad’s death, he left no designated successor, leading to disputes over leadership. Abu Bakr was chosen as the first caliph. He suppressed widespread rebellions during the Ridda (“Apostasy Wars”), preserving Muslim unity.

Umar (634–644 CE): Oversaw rapid expansion, conquering Byzantine Syria and Egypt, as well as Iraq and Iran from the Sassanian Empire.

Uthman (644–656 CE): Commissioned the standard compilation of the Qur’an. Accusations of nepotism led to unrest, and he was assassinated.

Ali (656–661 CE): Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law. His rule was marked by civil war—the First Fitna—against Muawiya. Ali was assassinated in Kufa in 661 CE.

Emergence of Imperial Rule and Sectarian Division

During this period, Islam expanded beyond Arabia into the Middle East and North Africa, absorbing Greek and Persian influences. After Ali’s death, Muawiya established the Umayyad Caliphate (661 CE), marking the political origins of the Sunni–Shia divide.

3. The Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates (661–1258 CE)

The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE)

With its capital in Damascus, the empire extended from Spain (conquered in 711 CE) to Central Asia. The Umayyads emphasized Arab leadership, causing resentment among non-Arab Muslim converts (Mawali). In 750 CE, the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads.

The Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 CE)

The Abbasids moved the capital to Baghdad and ushered in the Islamic Golden Age. Greek and Indian works—including those of Aristotle—were translated; mathematics (e.g., algebra), medicine (e.g., Avicenna), and philosophy (e.g., Averroes) flourished. During the reign of Harun al-Rashid (786–809 CE), the empire reached cultural zenith.

From the 9th century onward, regional powers such as the Fatimids in Egypt fragmented the empire, while Turkic military leaders gained dominance. In 1258 CE, the Mongols destroyed Baghdad, effectively ending Abbasid rule.

4. Later Medieval Period and the Age of Empires (13th–19th Centuries)

The Three Great Empires

The Ottoman Empire (1299–1922): Founded by Turkish tribes, it conquered Constantinople in 1453 and became the leading Muslim power, controlling Southeast Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa by the 16th century.

The Safavid Empire (1501–1736): A Shia state centered in Iran, rivaling the Sunni Ottomans and shaping modern Iranian religious identity.

The Mughal Empire (1526–1857): Ruled the Indian subcontinent, blending Islamic and Hindu cultures and producing architectural masterpieces such as the Taj Mahal.

Global Spread of Islam

Through trade and missionary activity, Islam spread to Southeast Asia (e.g., Indonesia by the 15th century) and Sub-Saharan Africa (e.g., Mali by the 13th century). Sufi mysticism played a major role in peaceful conversion.

5. The Modern Period (19th–21st Centuries)

Colonialism and Reform

European expansion in the 19th century weakened Muslim empires:
the Ottomans collapsed in 1922, and the Mughals were supplanted by British rule. Reformers emerged, such as Muhammad Abduh in Egypt advocating modern education, and Sir Syed Ahmed Khan in India establishing Aligarh University.

Nationalism and Independence

In the 20th century, Muslim-majority nations gained independence, including Saudi Arabia (1932) and Pakistan (1947). The Wahhabi movement, originating in the 18th century, influenced the religious character of Arabia, advocating a puritanical form of Islam.

Contemporary Developments

The 1979 Iranian Revolution established a Shia theocracy, intensifying Sunni–Shia rivalry with Saudi Arabia. Extremist groups such as al-Qaeda and ISIS emerged in the late 20th and early 21st centuries; although weakened by 2025, they left deep legacies of violence.

6. Summary up to 2025

As of February 26, 2025, Islam has grown from a small Meccan community into a global religion, experiencing phases of expansion, intellectual flourishing, sectarian division, and modern reform. Its historical influence remains evident in culture (architecture, literature), politics (debates over Islamic law), and society (migration and identity issues).