Since its inception, Christianity—as a universal religion—has been in continuous interaction with other belief systems. These interactions have included conflict and competition, as well as mutual borrowing and cooperation, becoming increasingly complex in the age of globalization. The following explores Christianity’s relationships with other religions by category and historical period, with attention to contemporary developments.

1. Christianity and Judaism

Historical Origins and Early Conflict

Christianity emerged from Judaism. Jesus and his early disciples were Jews, and they regarded the Old Testament (the Jewish Tanakh) as sacred scripture. However, when Christianity proclaimed Jesus as the Messiah, contradicting Judaism’s mainstream belief that the Messiah had not yet come, the two parted ways.

By the late first century, Christianity had begun to evangelize among Gentiles and gradually distanced itself from Jewish religious frameworks.

During the Middle Ages, as Christianity came to dominate Europe, Jews were often accused of “killing Christ” (Deicide), fueling anti-Jewish sentiment. For example, during the First Crusade in 1096, Jewish communities in Europe were massacred. This hostility persisted into the early modern period, as seen during the Spanish Inquisition in the 15th century, which expelled Jews from Spain.

Modern Transformation

In the 20th century, Christian attitudes toward Judaism underwent significant change. After World War II, the Holocaust prompted deep reflection within the Christian world. In 1965, the Second Vatican Council issued Nostra Aetate, rejecting the notion of collective Jewish guilt for the death of Jesus and opening a new era of dialogue.

Among Protestants, American evangelicals have developed strong ties with Judaism through political support for Israel (believing it fulfills biblical prophecy), though their missionary efforts—such as Jewish conversion movements—remain controversial.

Status in 2025

As of 2025, although major theological differences persist—especially regarding the identity of Jesus—practical cooperation has increased. In the United States, Jewish–Christian alliances voice support for religious freedom and moral issues. In Israel, Christian pilgrimage contributes to economic and cultural exchange.

2. Christianity and Islam

Early Competition and the Crusades

After Islam emerged in the 7th century, it quickly expanded into regions formerly dominated by Christianity, such as North Africa and the Middle East. The two religions held opposing theological views: Christianity upholds the Trinity and Jesus’ divinity, whereas Islam emphasizes the absolute oneness of God (Allah) and regards Jesus as a prophet, not the Son of God.

The Crusades (11th–13th centuries) were the most intense period of conflict, as Christian Europe attempted to reclaim Jerusalem from Muslim control. Ultimately, the Crusades failed. Later, Islamic empires—such as the Ottoman Empire—continued to confront Christian Europe.

The Colonial and Missionary Era

In the 19th century, European colonial powers brought Christianity into Muslim regions (e.g., Nigeria, Indonesia), provoking tension. In British India, Christian missionary activity intensified Muslim reformist movements such as the Deobandi school. Meanwhile, Muslim scholars (like Ibn Taymiyyah) critiqued Christian doctrine, reinforcing boundaries between the two religions.

Contemporary Dialogue and Conflict (as of 2025)

Beginning in the late 20th century, interfaith dialogue increased. In 2007, Muslim scholars issued A Common Word, calling for cooperation with Christians. In 2019, Pope Francis and the Grand Imam of al-Azhar signed the Document on Human Fraternity, promoting peaceful coexistence.

Yet conflict continues. Extremist groups in the Middle East—although diminished by 2025—have persecuted Christians, sharply reducing their presence in Syria and Iraq. In Europe, issues related to integration of Muslim immigrants (such as France’s headscarf debates) remain contentious. In Africa—especially Nigeria—competition between Christianity and Islam has led to violent clashes.

3. Christianity and Buddhism

Early Encounters and Missionary Efforts

Interactions between Christianity and Buddhism intensified in the 19th century during European colonial expansion. Missionaries such as T. W. Rhys Davids introduced Christianity into Buddhist regions like Sri Lanka and Myanmar, often attempting to supplant “pagan religions.” In response, Buddhist revival movements—such as those in Sri Lanka—emerged to resist Christian influence.

In East Asia, earlier contact occurred in the 7th century when the Nestorian Church entered Tang-dynasty China, coexisting peacefully with Buddhism but leaving limited impact.

Modern Dialogue and Influence

In the 20th century, Buddhism spread to the West (e.g., American Zen Buddhism), encouraging dialogue with Christianity. Catholic monk Thomas Merton studied Buddhist meditation, influencing Christian contemplative traditions. Protestant theologians such as Paul Tillich incorporated Buddhist concepts—like emptiness—into existential thought.

Conversely, Christianity has influenced Buddhist modernization. In Korea, Christian social activism inspired Buddhist groups (such as the Jogye Order) to engage more in charitable work.

Status in 2025

In 2025, Christianity and Buddhism coexist across Asia (e.g., Korea, Thailand) with both competition and cooperation. In Korea, Christian and Buddhist groups compete for followers yet occasionally collaborate in social services, such as pandemic relief. In the West, hybrid spiritual movements—such as “Christian Zen”—have grown.

4. Christianity and Hinduism

Conflict During Colonial Rule

Interactions between Christianity and Hinduism began with Portuguese colonization in the 16th century. Missionaries like Francis Xavier condemned Hindu polytheism as idolatry, destroying temples and enforcing conversions. In the 19th century, British missionaries promoted Christian education in India, spurring Hindu reform movements such as the Ramakrishna Mission.

Tension and Coexistence After Independence

After India gained independence in 1947, Christian missionary activity was restricted. Hindu nationalism—associated with the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)—portrayed Christianity as a foreign influence. In recent years, violence against Christians has increased, such as the church burnings in Manipur in 2023.

Status in 2025

By 2025, relations remain complex. In southern India (e.g., Kerala), Christians and Hindus largely coexist peacefully. In northern India, religious conflict is more frequent. Although the Vatican and Hindu spiritual leaders (such as the Shankaracharyas) engage in occasional dialogue, its practical effect remains limited.

5. Christianity and Other Religions and New Movements

Traditional Religions (e.g., African Indigenous Beliefs)

When Christianity spread in Africa, it often blended with local beliefs. Among the Yoruba in Nigeria, Christians sometimes retained ancestral practices. Similar syncretism appears in Latin America—such as Afro-Brazilian Candomblé merging with Catholic saints.

New Religious Movements

Christianity often competes with new religious movements such as Scientology or modern spiritualities. Evangelicals frequently criticize the New Age movement as “heresy,” though some Christians adopt meditation techniques associated with it.

6. Contemporary Patterns of Interaction (as of 2025)

Conflict and Competition

In religiously diverse regions such as India and Nigeria, competition for believers remains common. In Africa, Christian and Muslim groups increasingly compete in education, charity, and political influence.

Dialogue and Cooperation

Globalization has promoted interfaith dialogue. In 2025, the United Nations’ “Harmony Initiative” receives support from Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant churches, working alongside Islamic, Buddhist, and other religious groups to confront climate change. In the United States, the “Religious Pluralism” movement encourages cross-faith collaboration.

Cultural Exchange and Syncretism

Christianity absorbs elements from other religions:

Catholic inculturation in Asia integrates Confucian ethics.

African Pentecostalism adopts practices reminiscent of shamanistic traditions.
Meanwhile, Christian ethics—such as the value of charity—shape secular human rights discourse, influencing other religions in turn.

7. Future Outlook

As of 2025, interactions between Christianity and other religions will continue to be shaped by globalization, technology, and social change.

Challenges:

Rising religious extremism—such as Hindu nationalism or Islamist radicalism—may intensify conflict, requiring Christianity to balance evangelism with respect for pluralism.

Opportunities:

Global issues like climate change and AI ethics create space for interfaith cooperation, as seen in the 2024 Vatican-Buddhist climate summit.

Trends:

In the West, Christianity may become more secularized, blurring boundaries with other belief systems.

In the Global South, missionary vitality will continue to drive interactions and fusion with local traditions