Chapter 29: Reassessing Chen Duxiu: Upholding the Right Path Without Being Led by Mao

Chen Duxiu (1879–1942) was a pioneer of modern Chinese New Culture, an enlightenment thinker, and a radical democrat. Though caught in the orbit of the Russian Communist Party, he became a founding figure of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).

I. Scapegoat for the Failure of the Communist-KMT Cooperation

When the first United Front between the CCP and the Kuomintang failed, the Comintern blamed Chen Duxiu, making him a scapegoat, though he had committed no wrongdoing. He was the first Chinese communist leader to openly criticize Stalin. While imprisoned, he steadfastly adhered to his principles, refusing to yield to any political force. In his later years, he struggled to survive independently, maintaining a life of integrity and honesty—a rare achievement.

Chen was born in 1879 in Anqing, Anhui. He lost his father at age two and was raised and educated by his grandfather and elder brother. At 17, he passed the provincial civil service exam; at 18, he entered Hangzhou Qiushi Academy, studying French and shipbuilding. At 22, he self-funded studies in Japan, learning Japanese.

II. Radical Anti-Qing Activism and the Forced Queue Cutting

In 1903, Chen, together with Zou Rong and others, forcibly cut off the queue of Hubei military inspector Yao Yu while in Japan, and the Japanese government deported him. Returning to China, he co-founded Guomin Daily in Shanghai with Zhang Shizhao, which was soon banned, prompting him to return to Anqing.

In 1904, he founded Anhui Suhua Bao, a vernacular-language newspaper that made current affairs accessible to the public, gaining wide popularity. In 1905, he taught at Wuhu Wanjiang High School and led the anti-Qing group Yue Wang Society as president.

In 1907, Chen returned to Japan for the third time, first studying English and then enrolling at Waseda University to study Western culture. In 1908, he returned to China and taught Chinese language, history, and geography at Hangzhou Military Primary School.

After the 1911 Xinhai Revolution, he served as secretary general of the Anhui Governor’s Office and director of the Anhui Higher School. In 1913, he participated in anti-Yuan Shikai activities, was briefly arrested, and later released.

In 1914, Chen returned to Japan again, assisting Zhang Shizhao with Jia Yin magazine. Using the pen name “Duxiu” (after his hometown Duxiu Mountain), he published Patriotism and Self-Awareness.

III. Founding New Youth: Promoting Democracy and Science, Critiquing Confucian Ethics

In 1915, Chen returned to Shanghai and founded New Youth magazine to promote democracy and science and criticize Confucian morality. In 1917, he published the radical essay On the Literary Revolution, asserting that China’s darkness stemmed from entrenched ethical traditions. He called for a revolution in ethics, the destruction of outdated classical literature, the creation of fresh, realistic literature, the replacement of convoluted literary styles with popular social literature, and the transformation from classical Chinese to vernacular language.

In 1917, Cai Yuanpei appointed Chen as Dean of Arts at Peking University, where he taught literature. New Youth moved to Beijing, co-published with Li Dazhao.

IV. Dismissal for Visiting Brothels, Imprisonment for Pamphlets

In 1919, due to frequenting brothels and internal Peking University affairs, Chen was suspended. Following the May Fourth Movement, he was arrested in June for distributing the Beijing Citizen Declaration at the New World Amusement Park in Beijing, serving three months in prison before release.

In June 1919, he wrote in Weekly Review Laboratory and Prison: “The origins of world civilization are two: the laboratory and the prison. To go from laboratory to prison and back is the highest life. Civilization born in both places is true civilization.”

In autumn 1919, Chen returned to Shanghai and discussed Marxism and socialism with Dai Jitao and Zhang Dongshun.

V. Invited by Chen Jiongming to Lead Education in Guangdong; Absent from CCP First Congress

In spring 1920, Li Dazhao introduced Comintern representative V.I. Vekinski (Wu Tingkang in Chinese) to meet Chen in Shanghai, deciding to establish the Chinese Communist Party. In August, a small Communist group was founded in Shanghai, with Li Hanjun, Li Lian, and Chen Wangdao participating, and Chen Duxiu serving as secretary.

At the end of 1920, invited by Guangdong Governor Chen Jiongming, Chen went to Guangzhou as Commissioner of Education, overseeing provincial education, while Shanghai Party Secretary Li Da acted as proxy.

The CCP’s first congress was held in Shanghai in July 1921. Chen did not attend, sending written opinions through representatives. At the end of the year, he resigned from Guangdong and returned to Shanghai to lead the CCP.

In July 1922, the CCP’s second congress was held in Shanghai, and Chen was re-elected secretary-general. In August, he was arrested for possessing prohibited books at home and fined.

In 1922, the Comintern instructed the CCP to cooperate with Sun Yat-sen’s KMT. Chen and other CCP members mostly opposed, but at the West Lake Conference in August, under Comintern pressure, he reluctantly complied, joining the KMT. In November, he went to Moscow for the Fourth Comintern Congress.

After the February 7, 1923 strike, Wu Peifu issued a warrant for Chen. The CCP soon moved to Guangzhou for its Third Congress, re-electing Chen as secretary-general. In September, the CCP moved back to Shanghai.

VI. Temporary Wang-Chen Alliance, Then CCP-KMT Split

In March 1927, the KMT’s Northern Expedition forces captured Longhua, Shanghai. Chen and Zhou Enlai led armed workers to attack the East Station, strengthening the Shanghai Workers’ Inspection Team in preparation to resist Chiang’s forces. On April 4, Chen and the recently returned Wang Jingwei issued the Wang-Chen United Declaration, following Wang to Wuhan.

On April 12, clashes broke out between the worker militias and Chiang’s army—the April 12 Incident—marking the definitive KMT-CCP split and mutual slaughter.

VII. Stalin Blames Chen; Chen Refuses to Go to Moscow

On July 12, 1927, Soviet advisor Borodin, following Stalin’s instructions, suspended Chen, with Zhang Guotao, Li Lisan, and Zhou Enlai managing the CCP. On July 15, Wang Jingwei executed the “split with the CCP,” expelling communists in the July 15 Incident, causing severe CCP setbacks.

On August 7, the new Comintern representative Roy presided over the August 7 Emergency Meeting in Wuhan, forbidding Chen from attending and denouncing him as a “rightist opportunist.”

During his six years as secretary-general, Chen led highly democratic meetings without predetermined agendas. He accepted minimal financial support from the Soviet Union for party activities but refused weapons assistance.

In July 1928, Stalin ordered the CCP’s Sixth Congress to convene in Moscow and insisted on Chen’s attendance. Chen asked, “Why must Chinese affairs be discussed abroad?” and refused. Stalin demanded he reflect on the failure of the Great Revolution. At that time, Trotsky believed Stalin was responsible for the Great Revolution’s failure in China—a view Chen agreed with.

VIII. Opposing “Armed Defense of the Soviet Union,” Expelled from the Party

In 1929, Chen resonated with Trotsky’s analysis of the Chinese revolution. He disagreed with the Comintern’s claim that revolutionary momentum in China was rising. He opposed the emergency uprising strategy of the August 7 Meeting, rejected the ultra-left program for an immediate proletarian dictatorship, and opposed the Sixth Congress line.

In September 1929, Chen, with Peng Shuzhi, founded the Trotskyist group Proletarian Society. In November, he opposed the CCP’s call to “Armed Defense of the Soviet Union” over the China Eastern Railway incident, and was expelled from the party. Chen issued Letter to All Party Members and, with 80 others, published Our Political Opinions, refuting the CCP Central Committee.

In 1931, Trotskyist groups united to form the CCP Left Opposition, electing Chen as secretary. Later, when Trotsky advocated defending the USSR as the axis, Chen refused, prioritizing China’s interests, and became non-affiliated politically.

IX. Zhang Shizhao Defends Chen in Court

In October 1932, Chen was arrested in Shanghai. Both the KMT and CCP condemned him. Prominent lawyer Zhang Shizhao defended him passionately, earning widespread admiration. When Zhang mentioned “Trotsky coordinating with the KMT to purge the CCP,” Chen rose to speak but was restrained.

After Zhang’s 50-minute defense, Chen insisted: “Lawyer Zhang’s defense is personal opinion; my political positions should be based on my own writings.” He was sentenced to 13 years in Nanjing First Prison for “propaganda of treason.” Zhang’s defense and Chen’s Defense Statement were published in newspapers and later used in Shanghai University law courses.

In December 1932, Einstein, Bertrand Russell, and Dewey appealed to Chiang Kai-shek to release Chen. Hu Shi and Fu Sinian also petitioned, but Chiang refused.

X. Four Years in Prison: Condemning Stalin for Ruining the Revolution

Chen spent over four years in prison, using the time to study classical and modern literature, Chinese linguistics, and Confucian and Daoist philosophy. He produced valuable works.

In March 1936, Spark magazine published his prison essay The Proletariat and Democracy, condemning Stalin for abandoning democracy, replacing it with bureaucratic rule, and corrupting the proletarian regime worse than Trotsky had predicted.

Chen never admitted personal fault. When Minister of Defense He Yingqin visited, Chen wrote: “The army may lose its commander, but a man cannot lose his will.”

XI. Refusing to Lead a Third Party or Submit to Mao

When the Second Sino-Japanese War fully broke out in 1937, Chen was released early. He communicated with Bo Gu and Ye Jianying, supporting a united front against Japan and the CCP but refused to join any party.

In 1938, Wang Ming and Kang Sheng accused him of being a Japanese spy. Chen wrote letters to refute these claims. Zhou Enlai repeatedly urged him to go to Yan’an, and Mao wanted him to write a self-criticism, both rejected. Chiang Kai-shek offered him the labor ministry and funds to form a “New Communist Party.” Tan Pingshan suggested he form a third party; Hu Shi invited him to the United States—Chen refused all.

XII. Upholding the Right Path, Living Poorly and Passing Away

After prison, Chen lived quietly in Jiangjin, Sichuan, teaching and writing, refusing aid from Zhou Enlai or anyone else. In his final years, he lived in poverty and ill health, continuing to comment on current events. He died in Jiangjin in 1942 at 63.

The CCP historically accused him of ten offenses: opportunism in the Second Revolution, rightist opportunism, rightist capitulationist line, Trotskyist-Chen faction, anti-Soviet, anti-Comintern, anti-party, counter-revolutionary, traitor, and collaborator. Mao’s last mention of Chen in 1959: “His death is my responsibility. I did not bring him to Yan’an.” Mao never wanted Chen in Yan’an. Chen bluntly told Zhou Enlai: “I refuse to be led by the nose. Why make everyone scatter with no result?”

XIII. All Charges Against Chen Reversed, But CCP Says He “Never Returned to Marxist-Leninist Path”

Since the 1980s, scholars gradually overturned Chen’s charges. In 2004, Hu Jintao stated that Chen’s “rightist error” was the mildest judgment by CCP leaders to date.

After decades of research, most charges were rescinded, but the central government has not officially recognized Chen as a positive figure, claiming he never returned to the Marxist-Leninist track.

XIV. A Life of Integrity, Honesty, and Consistency

Chen Duxiu lived a life of integrity, honesty, and consistency. He identified as non-partisan, having rejected Marx, Lenin, and Stalin, aligning himself with global progressive trends.

Early in life, he admired utilitarianism, criticized religion, and theorized human evolution in three stages: religious superstition, metaphysical thought, and scientific empiricism, criticizing Christianity as hindering science. From 1920, he revised these views, recognizing Christianity as a “religion of love” with noble self-sacrifice, great forgiveness, and universal equality, believing it could save China. He reassessed religion’s role in purifying and beautifying human emotions, envisioning a harmonious society based on love and care.

XV. Writing Elementary Literacy Textbook in Prison: Refusing to Change the Title

In prison, Chen studied Chinese characters and wrote Elementary Literacy Textbook. Though it appeared to be a primer for children, it was actually a comprehensive work on Chinese linguistics. “Elementary” here refers to the traditional combination of phonetics, script, and meaning—a hallmark of Chen’s scholarship.

Chen Li-fu suggested renaming it Explanation of Chinese Characters, but Chen Duxiu refused, even returning the royalties. Later, Liang Shiqiu renamed it New Interpretation of Characters, published in Taiwan in 1971. Chen’s insistence on the title demonstrates his steadfastness and independence of thought.