Chapter 24: Reassessing Wang Jingwei: Political Failure, Moral Character Endures

Wang Jingwei (1883–1944), originally named Wang Zhaoming, was born in Sanshui, Guangdong, with ancestral roots in Shaoxing, Zhejiang. At the age of eighteen he passed the xiucai examination in Guangzhou and was sent to Japan at public expense to study law. Among more than two hundred students, Wang graduated second in his class from Hosei University. In 1905 he joined Sun Yat-sen’s Xingzhonghui (Revive China Society) and participated in founding Minbao. He began publishing articles under the pen name “Jingwei,” expressing the revolutionary determination of the mythical jingwei bird that tirelessly fills the sea. From then on the name “Wang Jingwei” became widely known, and people gradually forgot his original name.

Before graduating in Japan, Wang traveled to Southeast Asia to raise funds. He was an outstanding orator with strong persuasive power. He gained the admiration of Chen Bijun, a sixteen-year-old daughter of a wealthy Malaysian businessman, who later followed him to Japan and joined revolutionary activities.

I. Drawing the Blade for One Great Deed, Not Betraying Youthful Resolve

In 1908, the Qing court announced preparations for constitutional monarchy, and morale within Sun Yat-sen’s Tongmenghui declined. Zhang Taiyan and others accused Sun of embezzling funds, while Liang Qichao mocked the Tongmenghui as “long-distance revolutionaries” who “only trick others into dying while they themselves live in tall buildings and fine houses.” Wang Jingwei was deeply provoked. To restore public confidence in the revolutionaries, Wang arranged with several companions to sneak into Beijing under the cover of opening a photography studio, plotting to assassinate the Qing regent Zaifeng. In A Letter to Comrades in the South Seas, he wrote: “Whether this mission succeeds or fails, there is no hope of returning alive.”

In February 1910, Wang planted a bomb late at night at Yinding Bridge on the northern shore of Houhai in Beijing. The plot was discovered, and in April he was arrested. In prison, Wang faced death calmly and delivered an impassioned statement of over 4,000 words. His verses—“Drawing the blade brings one great joy, not betraying youthful resolve” and “Let the soul remain, shining nightly over Yantai”—became famous. The presiding judge, Prince Su, admired Wang’s character and learning and commuted his sentence to life imprisonment instead of execution. He often visited Wang in prison and treated him with courtesy. Prince Su once said: “If you succeed, I think you still won’t be able to do much to us.” Wang later remarked: “Those words proved true. We succeeded, yet things turned out even worse than under the Qing.”

II. Refusing Office, Studying Abroad, and Marrying Chen Bijun

In 1912, the Qing emperor abdicated and Yuan Shikai became president. Wang vowed not to serve as an official or legislator and chose instead to study in France. He withdrew from politics and expressed weariness with struggle. While in France, the revolutionary elder Wu Zhihui, eighteen years his senior, once placed a military cap on Wang’s head and said: “Saving the nation depends on force. If you shoulder this great responsibility, I will be the first to kneel before you.” Unfortunately, Wang had no interest in military affairs.

In 1915, when Yuan Shikai proclaimed himself emperor, Sun Yat-sen urgently summoned Wang back to China. “The Second Revolution needs you.” The first revolution had failed to secure power for Sun; the second opportunity had arrived. Unexpectedly, Yuan died quickly, yet power still did not fall into Sun’s hands. Sun could not find sufficient support until the Soviet Communist Party approached him in 1923. Sun welcomed the alliance eagerly. Arms and funds flowed continuously into Guangzhou, and the following year Sun demonstrated his power by suppressing the Guangzhou Merchant Corps.

In 1920, Wang returned to China at Sun’s command and joined him in Guangzhou in the policy of “uniting with Russia and the Communist Party.” Wang said: “It’s like Sun Wukong flipping inside one’s belly—how could anyone endure that?” Sun replied: “If you won’t do it, I’ll join the Communist Party myself!” Under the direction of Soviet adviser Borodin, they had no choice but to proceed.

III. Ghostwriting the “Testament of the Father of the Nation”

Sun Yat-sen died in Beijing in 1925. Wang ghostwrote the “Testament of the Father of the Nation”: “For forty years I have devoted myself to the national revolution….” While Wang governed in Guangzhou, he continued the policy of “uniting with Russia and the Communist Party.” Chiang Kai-shek, controlling the military, bypassed Wang in handling the “Zhongshan Warship Incident.” Wang avoided confrontation and withdrew to France. He did not return until 1927, after traveling via Moscow and meeting Stalin, who demanded that Borodin not be expelled.

Wang returned to Shanghai as Chiang prepared to “split with the Communists,” but Wang “consistently sided with them.” Wu Zhihui even knelt before him, begging him to change course, but Wang instead issued a “Joint Declaration” with Chen Duxiu. Wu angrily cursed him as “worse than a dog.” Wang wept bitterly and that night was secretly put on a ship to Wuhan by T.V. Soong, leaving without farewell. Chiang Kai-shek soon launched the April 12 massacre of Communists.

In Wuhan, following Comintern instructions, 20,000 party members and 50,000 workers’ and peasants’ troops were mobilized to counterattack. Only then did Wang awaken and strongly advocate “splitting with the Communists.” Soong Ching-ling firmly opposed this, insisting on continued alliance with Russia and the Communists. Wang expelled Soviet adviser Borodin, who fled back to Russia by train and automobile through Shaanxi and Mongolia. On July 15, Wang passed the “Resolution to Suppress the Communist Party.”

On August 1, 1927, Zhou Enlai and He Long led 20,000 troops in the “Nanchang Uprising.” Wang launched a “campaign against Communist bandits,” and the Ning–Han split was reconciled.

IV. Assassinated and Injured, Leaving the Country

In 1935, Chiang and Wang cooperated for the second time. Wang became Premier of the Executive Yuan. During a joint meeting in Nanjing and Beijing, while posing for photographs, Wang was shot three times, suffering wounds to his left cheek, left arm, and back. The assassin was a radical pro-war activist. Chiang excused himself from attending the photo session. Chen Bijun always suspected Chiang. Wang soon left for France to recover.

In 1937, Wang returned to China and became vice chairman of the Kuomintang. Soon after, the July 7 Marco Polo Bridge Incident occurred. Communists hidden within the 29th Army were ordered to fire on Japanese troops, deliberately provoking the conflict. Mao Zedong released a pre-prepared telegram within hours, igniting the Sino-Japanese War. By December 1937, Japanese forces easily captured Nanjing. Chiang Kai-shek proposed “scorched-earth resistance,” meaning total destruction—burning and demolishing everything. While this disrupted Japanese supply lines, the greatest victims were Chinese civilians. During the retreat from Changsha, fires killed tens of thousands of civilians. In 1938, the Yellow River dikes were blown up, drowning 100,000 people and leaving over a million homeless, without killing a single Japanese soldier.

V. Wu Zhihui Kneels

After the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, Wang once hosted guests at his Chongqing residence. Wu Zhihui suddenly knelt before him and pleaded: “Save China! Pull back from the brink—how can this unfavorable war be ended?” Wang was at a loss and knelt in return, clasping Wu’s hands in tears.

Soon afterward, Wang proposed a “peace movement” and “friendly relations with Japan”:

China could not win the war; negotiating peace before total defeat would be more beneficial.

The interests of people in Japanese-occupied areas needed protection.

If Chiang won the war, Wang’s agreements with Japan would naturally be annulled; if Chiang could not win, the agreements could restrain Japanese behavior.

In August 1938, Wang’s representative Zhou Fohai negotiated in Hong Kong with representatives of Japanese Prime Minister Konoe. Japan proposed “no territorial demands, no reparations, withdrawal within two years,” and expressed support for the peace movement.

On December 19, 1938, Wang, Zhou Fohai, Chen Gongbo, and more than ten others left Chongqing via Kunming for Hanoi. On January 4, 1939, Prime Minister Konoe suddenly resigned, hardliners took power, and the peace movement failed. But Wang had already departed and could only continue forward.

During Wang’s three months in Hanoi in 1939, Chiang repeatedly sent assassins. Wang’s secretary was killed in a mistaken attack, while Wang himself narrowly escaped.

VI. Nanjing Government and Chongqing Government, One National Flag

In March 1940, Wang reached an agreement with Japan to establish the Nanjing government, which also used the Kuomintang’s “Blue Sky, White Sun, Red Earth” flag, with the added slogan “Peace, Anti-Communism, Nation-Building,” distinguishing it from Chongqing. The peace government existed for five and a half years, governing one-third of China’s territory—the fertile eastern regions—nearly half the nation’s population. Life in Japanese-occupied areas was normal, and public order was good. National Central University in Nanjing continued operating; Jiang Zemin later studied there for two years. Japanese forces mainly demanded unimpeded railways and supply lines, which also benefited civilians.

From its establishment until August 1943, twenty KMT Central Committee members and fifty-eight senior generals defected from Chiang’s side to Wang’s. Wang did not actively entice familiar generals. His forces numbered over 500,000, mostly local units, and did not undermine Chiang’s resistance. Wang built his army starting from military academies, training officers above platoon level in three-month courses. At its peak, the army exceeded one million. It did not fight on the front lines, only conducting rear-area “pacification,” eliminating Communist and residual KMT forces and maintaining local stability. There were no reports of popular complaints or terror; it functioned as a buffer.

VII. Old Gunshot Wounds Flare Up, Death in Japan

The bullet from the 1938 assassination attempt was never removed. In December 1943 it was extracted, but Wang’s condition worsened. In March 1944 he went to Japan for treatment and died of pneumonia in November. With great effort he said his final words: “I want to return to China.” His body was returned to Nanjing and buried on Plum Mountain beside Sun Yat-sen’s Mausoleum. After Japan’s surrender in 1945, Chiang ordered General He Yingqin to destroy the tomb with explosives, cremate the remains, and scatter the ashes with a blower. Later, the Communist Party erected a kneeling statue at the site for public scorn; it was removed in 1999.

Chen Bijun was imprisoned. In 1949, when Chiang retreated to Taiwan, he left her to the Communists. Soong Ching-ling and He Xiangning visited her with Mao Zedong’s message, stating that if Chen wrote a single letter of repentance, she would be freed. Chen replied immediately: “I am not guilty; what repentance is there?” She chose prison over freedom in Beijing and died in custody in 1959.

VIII. Chen Bijun’s Defense: Who Betrayed the Nation?

Chen Bijun once defended Wang in Chiang’s court: “When Japanese invaders attacked, the central government failed to protect the people, territory was lost, and the people suffered—was this Chiang’s responsibility or Wang’s? If Wang betrayed the nation, which inch of land did he sell? Wang never induced a single soldier or general to defect. The Nanjing government ruled only Japanese-occupied areas; not one inch of land was surrendered by Wang. On the contrary, Wang risked his life, endured humiliation, and sought the survival of the people under enemy guns. With what nation did he trade? Wang pursued peace, dealing with Japan empty-handed, recovering occupied areas and returning them intact to the country. Not only is he innocent; he has merit.”

IX. Chen Bijun Chose Prison unto Death

Chen Bijun truly lived up to being a partner through hardship, sharing life and death and preserving integrity.

In fact, Chiang Kai-shek also sought separate peace talks with Japan. In March 1945 he sent Miao Bin to Japan for secret negotiations. The Japanese prime minister personally participated. Before any agreement was reached, Japan surrendered under atomic bombing. Chiang feared U.S. General MacArthur’s fury and summoned Miao to Tokyo as a witness, then swiftly executed him. Japan enshrined Miao Bin as a god of peace, erecting a memorial in Tokyo.

Wang never coveted wealth, avoided women, did not smoke, patronize prostitutes, or gamble. His character was beyond reproach. On the eve of the Nanjing government’s establishment, people thought he had achieved success, yet he felt no joy and wrote:
“Good friends vanish through countless calamities,
The land again sinks in a century of gloom;
Do not lament loneliness in sorrow—
Reviewing my life, I have not fulfilled my duty.”
These lines reveal his anguish over the nation’s condition.

X. The Error Lay in Japan Fighting the United States; Moral Character Endures

Wang left only the Collected Poems of Shuangzhaolou, which reveal his pursuit of Sino-Japanese peace.

In 1938, Wang recognized that China could not defeat Japan and chose an early surrender to preserve national strength and manpower and avoid further sacrifice. At the time, this was not necessarily wrong. The error lay in Japan’s 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor, making the United States its enemy. Had Japan not attacked the United States, it could have conquered China and then all of Asia within a few years. In that case, Wang Jingwei would have been entirely vindicated, and all of China would have hailed “Chairman Wang.” Once Japan provoked the world’s strongest power, however, defeat was inevitable, and Wang fell with it. Political outcomes are not determined by individual will.

Japan is rising again. Germany, once defeated, has risen to become the leader of the European Union, and Hitler’s crimes have somewhat faded. In a few decades, when Japan rises again, Wang Jingwei too will be reassessed. Political failure may be temporary; moral character endures forever.