Chapter 21: Reassessing Zhang Zuolin — A Warlord of a Chaotic Age, His Unfinished Bid for Supremacy, Killed by Japan

Zhang Zuolin (1875–1928) emerged from bandit origins after the collapse of the Qing dynasty and rose to become the ruler of Manchuria. He led troops into the interior passes several times to interfere in national politics. Ultimately defeated, he retreated back to the Northeast, where he was assassinated by the Japanese. His death lent him a certain nationalist aura, and neither the Chinese Communist Party nor the Nationalist Party showed strong hostility toward him.

I. White Bandits Were Less Criminal Than Red Bandits

During his lifetime in the Northeast, Zhang Zuolin did not commit grave atrocities, unlike Mao Zedong’s “red bandits,” who brutally harmed the populace. Red bandits brought calamity to the nation and people, far surpassing white bandits in destructiveness. Sun Yat-sen repeatedly sought to use Zhang Zuolin’s military strength to accomplish major political goals, but failed until his death. Zhang Xueliang, however, was exploited by Mao Zedong and became instrumental in the anti-Chiang Kai-shek seizure of power.

II. Zhang Xueliang’s Crimes Were Greater Than His Father’s

After Zhang Zuolin’s death, Zhang Xueliang succeeded him, changed allegiance to Chiang Kai-shek, avoided resisting Japan, preserved his own strength, entered the interior, marched on Xi’an, colluded with the Communists, and sought Soviet support to establish an independent Northwestern kingdom. Under the banner of resisting Japan, he launched the Xi’an Incident against Chiang Kai-shek, becoming the Chinese Communist Party’s greatest benefactor. From then on, the Communists grew stronger, defeated Chiang Kai-shek, and seized control of China. In his later years, Zhang Xueliang was released and offered transport back to mainland China by Deng Xiaoping, but having witnessed thirty years of devastation under Communist rule, he felt unable to face the people of his homeland and ultimately passed away peacefully in the United States.

III. Bandit Origins but Maintaining Local Order

Zhang Zuolin was born in 1875 in Haicheng County, Liaoning Province. His father, Zhang Youcai, ran a shop. Zhang attended private schooling in his youth. At age 13, his father was killed by enemies. At 14, to survive, Zhang sold pancakes, apprenticed as a carpenter, worked as a peddler, learned veterinary medicine and horse appraisal, and maintained close ties with local bandits. At 19, he enlisted in the army. After China’s defeat in the Sino-Japanese War of 1895, he was discharged and returned home to work as a veterinarian. In 1896, at age 21, he joined the major bandit leader Dong Dahou.

In 1900, when Russia invaded Northeast China and chaos ensued, Zhang left the bandits and returned to his father-in-law’s hometown, organizing a local security force to maintain order over more than twenty villages. In 1901, bandit Jin Taishan colluded with Russian troops to attack him; Zhang escaped. In 1902, he was recruited and incorporated by Shengjing Military Governor Zeng Qi and appointed commander of a mobile cavalry unit (equivalent to battalion commander).

IV. Toward Russia and Japan: “Whoever Benefits Me, I Support”

During the Russo-Japanese War of 1904, Zhang Zuolin followed the principle of “whoever gives me benefits, I help,” serving both Russian and Japanese forces at different times. He was once arrested by Japanese military police but escaped. In 1908, after repeated successful campaigns against bandits, he was promoted to brigade commander, commanding seven battalions totaling 3,500 troops.

In 1911, following the outbreak of the Xinhai Revolution, Zhang was ordered to suppress revolutionaries. His forces expanded to fifteen battalions and 7,000 men.

V. Appointed Division Commander by Yuan Shikai

In 1912, Yuan Shikai appointed Zhang commander of the 27th Division, granting him control over military and political affairs in Fengtian Province. In 1915, Zhang supported Yuan Shikai’s imperial restoration. In 1916, under the slogan “Manchurians govern Manchuria,” Zhang expelled Yuan’s trusted subordinate Duan Zhigui, known as the “King of Fengtian.”

VI. Appointed Provincial Governor by Li Yuanhong

After Yuan Shikai’s death, President Li Yuanhong appointed Zhang as military governor and provincial governor of Fengtian, giving him control of the three northeastern provinces. At his peak, his influence extended to Rehe, Chahar, Suiyuan, and parts of North China. In 1918, Zhang seized weapons purchased from Japan by the Zhili clique at Qinhuangdao to expand his forces. He then entered the interior to support the Anhui clique’s policy of “military unification.” In 1919, Zhang expelled Jilin military governor Meng Enyuan and officially became the “King of the Northeast.”

VII. Entering the Interior, Defeated by Wu Peifu

In the 1920 Zhili–Anhui War, Zhang Zuolin supported the Zhili clique against the Anhui clique and convened an eight-province alliance meeting in Fengtian. In 1921, Zhang entered Beijing and formed the Liang Shiyi cabinet. In January 1922, Wu Peifu exposed the cabinet’s pro-Japanese and traitorous policies, leading to its collapse after only two months. The underlying reason was the Zhili clique’s dissatisfaction with Zhang’s control of the Beijing government.

In April, Zhang Zuolin and Wu Peifu, who controlled six provinces, clashed in the First Zhili–Fengtian War. Zhang was defeated in May and retreated to the Northeast, where—supported by Japan’s Kwantung Army—he declared the independence of the three northeastern provinces.

VIII. Re-entering the Interior, Bribing Feng Yuxiang, Controlling Beijing

In September 1924, Zhang Zuolin’s “Zhenwei Army,” consisting of six armies, entered the interior and fought the Second Zhili–Fengtian War. He bribed Zhili general Feng Yuxiang to defect, achieving victory. Zhang entered Beijing, controlled the government, and installed Duan Qirui as provisional chief executive. In 1925, Fengtian forces entered Shanghai, marking Zhang’s peak of power. In October, Zhejiang governor Sun Chuanfang declared war on Zhang, leading to the Zhejiang–Fengtian War. In November, Fengtian forces were defeated and withdrew from Jiangsu and Shanghai.

IX. Guo Songling’s Rebellion, Defeated with Japanese Help

In November, Fengtian general Guo Songling rebelled at Luan County in Hebei. Feng Yuxiang also issued proclamations denouncing Zhang. In December, Guo’s forces advanced victoriously and captured Jinzhou. Zhang urgently requested Japanese intervention. Japanese and Fengtian troops jointly encircled and defeated Guo’s army, and Guo Songling was executed.

X. Defeating Feng Yuxiang, Regaining Control of Beijing

In 1926, Zhang Zuolin again joined forces with Japan to defeat Feng Yuxiang, forcing Feng’s retreat to the Northwest and his resignation. In June, Zhang entered Beijing and met with Wu Peifu to plan anti-Communist operations. In November, as the Northern Expedition advanced, Sun Chuanfang was defeated and defected northward to the Fengtian clique. Zhang convened a military conference in Tianjin, formed the “Pacification Army,” and was elected commander-in-chief by fifteen provinces to fight the Northern Expedition forces.

XI. President of the Republic, 1927–1928

In June 1927, Zhang Zuolin was proclaimed Grand Marshal in Beijing, exercising presidential authority as the last ruler of the Beijing government. He enjoyed being called “Marshal Zhang.” He ordered the raid on the Soviet embassy and arrested and executed Li Dazhao and over twenty Communist members.

XII. Chiang’s Forces Enter Beijing, Zhang Withdraws Beyond the Passes

In April 1928, Northern Expedition forces attacked the Fengtian army, which collapsed along the entire front and retreated to Cangzhou and Baoding. In May, the Nationalists launched a general offensive. By June, Beijing and Tianjin were surrounded on three sides. Zhang Zuolin was forced to issue a proclamation announcing withdrawal beyond the passes. On June 3, he boarded a special train to return to the Northeast.

XIII. Train Bombed, Death Ensues

On June 4, at Huangguatun Station in Shenyang, Zhang’s train was bombed. He was gravely wounded and died shortly thereafter at age 53. Japanese Colonel Kawamoto publicly admitted responsibility for planning the bombing. Historians believe Zhang was assassinated because he failed to satisfy Japan’s full demands regarding railways, mining, and land concessions.

XIV. A Warlord of a Chaotic Age, Not Entirely Negative

Zhang Zuolin was a warlord of turbulent times who dominated the Northeast for fifteen years. Rising from bandit origins, he also suppressed banditry and maintained order. His repeated incursions into the interior fueled constant warfare. In the Northeast, he faced two powerful predators—Japan and Russia—alternately cooperating and clashing with them, but did not fundamentally betray national interests. Culturally, he respected Confucianism and opposed communism, founded Northeastern University, and built arsenals to manufacture artillery. Judged soberly by history, he was not an entirely negative figure—certainly better than his son, Zhang Xueliang.