Chapter 19: Reassessing Duan Qirui: The Most Incorruptible Premier of the Republic, Sustained in His Final Years by Chiang Kai-shek

Duan Qirui (1865–1936) was a prominent political figure in the early Republic of China. Between Yuan Shikai and Chiang Kai-shek, he was the Beiyang leader who exercised real power for the longest period. After retiring in 1926, he preserved his integrity in his later years, refused to be tempted by Japanese efforts to lure him back into politics, and was praised as the incorruptible “Premier of the Six Nots.” His final testament, the “Eight Don’ts,” constitutes a rare legacy of political thought.

I. Early Years Studying Military Science in Germany

Duan Qirui was born in 1865 in Hefei, Anhui. His grandfather and uncle were both generals in the Huai Army. At the age of twenty he entered the Tianjin Military Academy and graduated four years later. He was then selected to study military science in Germany. In 1890 he returned to China and served as an instructor and artillery commander at the Weihai Military Academy, and participated in the Battle of Weihaiwei. In 1895 he entered Yuan Shikai’s staff at Xiaozhan, overseeing training at the accompanying military school. In 1905 he was promoted to commander of the Fourth New Army Division, stationed at Machang in Tianjin. In 1906 he became superintendent of the Baoding Military Academy; during this period Chiang Kai-shek was also a student there. Duan Qirui’s long-term control over officer training laid the foundation for his influence within the Beiyang Army.

II. Yuan Shikai Gifts Him a Private Residence, Forging a Personal Bond

In 1909 Yuan Shikai fell from power, was dismissed by the Qing court, and returned to his hometown to recuperate. Before leaving Beijing, Yuan gifted his private residence there to Duan Qirui. In 1910, in recognition of Duan’s merits in supervising the army, the Qing court awarded him the first-rank official hat and appointed him Commander of the Jiangbei region, stationed in Huai’an, Jiangsu.

III. President Yuan and Premier Duan

In 1911, after the Wuchang Uprising, Yuan Shikai returned to politics and recommended Duan as Governor-General of Huguang to suppress the revolutionaries. In November, Feng Guozhang captured the two towns of Wuhan; in December, Duan ordered a withdrawal from Hanyang, initiating peace negotiations between north and south. On December 26, under Yuan’s direction, Duan led fifty Beiyang generals in issuing the “Telegram of Fifty Beiyang Generals Petitioning for a Republic,” pressuring the Qing court. Soon after, he issued a second such telegram, stating explicitly: “We respectfully lead the entire army to enter the capital and lay out the pros and cons before the princes and nobles.” Under intimidation, Empress Dowager Longyu accepted the terms and on February 12, 1912 issued an edict for the abdication of the Qing emperor, instructing Duan to form a government.

In March 1912 Yuan became Provisional President, with Duan serving as Minister of the Army. In July 1913 Duan became Acting Premier and deployed troops to suppress Sun Yat-sen’s “Second Revolution.”

In 1914, World War I broke out and Japanese forces occupied Qingdao. Duan advocated a decisive war against Japan. In 1915, when Yuan Shikai signed the “Twenty-One Demands” with Japan, Duan objected, claimed illness, resigned, and went to the Western Hills to recuperate. He also opposed Yuan’s push for monarchy, breaking a close personal relationship forged over twenty years. He met Yuan three times in person, all rejected, and twice more was turned away at the door.

IV. Opposing Yuan’s Monarchy and Breaking Personal Ties

In March 1916 Yuan was forced to abandon the monarchy and invited Duan back into office. Duan became Chief of the General Staff. In June Yuan died of illness; Li Yuanhong succeeded as president, with Duan as premier. In 1917 disagreement arose over which side China should support in World War I—Li favored Germany, Duan favored Japan—leading to the “Presidential–Premier Conflict,” and Duan temporarily withdrew to Tianjin.
In June 1917 the “Zhang Xun Restoration” occurred; Li Yuanhong left office, and Duan mobilized troops from Machang to suppress the restoration, returned to Beijing, and resumed the premiership. Feng Guozhang became president. Later Duan resigned again due to differences with Feng over resolving the north–south conflict. In 1918 Feng’s term ended, Xu Shichang was elected president, and Duan continued to influence the government through the Anhui clique.

In 1920 the Zhili–Anhui War broke out. Duan, as commander-in-chief of the Anhui forces, was defeated by Wu Peifu’s Zhili Army with support from the Fengtian forces. Duan resigned and retired to Tianjin. Zhili and Fengtian troops entered Beijing. Xu Shichang appointed Cao Kun as Inspector-General of Zhili, Shandong, and Henan, with Wu Peifu as deputy. In 1922 Cao Kun forced Xu Shichang out and was elected president.

In 1924 Feng Yuxiang launched the Beijing Coup, overthrew Cao Kun, invited Duan to take command, and appointed him Provisional Chief Executive, effectively the interim head of state. In 1925 Duan ordered the abolition of the original Republican parliament, replacing it with a Provisional Advisory Council.

V. The “March 18 Massacre” and Retirement as a Private Citizen

On March 18, 1926, the “March 18 Massacre” occurred in Beijing. Li Dazhao led five thousand students to demonstrate at Tiananmen, demanding rejection of the Eight-Power ultimatum. Feng Yuxiang suppressed the protest, killing forty-seven and wounding more than two hundred. Duan Qirui ordered compensation for the dead, medical treatment for the injured, and punishment of those primarily responsible for the killings. In April 1926 Duan was driven from office by Feng Yuxiang and retired to Tianjin as a private citizen, devoting himself to Buddhist studies and calling himself the “Layman of the Right Path.”

In July 1928, after Chiang Kai-shek’s Northern Expedition reached Beijing, Chiang learned that Duan was in Tianjin and wrote to him as a former student: “Separated for twenty-three years, your past achievements in assisting the republic are deeply respected and never forgotten. Your sincerity in saving the nation and loving the people has never been misled by villains…” expressing profound respect for his former teacher.

VI. Refusing to Serve Japan

After the September 18 Incident in 1931, Japan supported Puyi in establishing Manchukuo. Japanese agents repeatedly visited Duan in Tianjin, urging him to return to politics, but he remained unmoved. Duan said: “Japan is brutal and arrogant; to save the nation, we must rely only on ourselves.”

In January 1933, after Japanese forces seized Shanhaiguan and North China was in crisis, Chiang Kai-shek feared Duan might be exploited by Japan. He sent a special envoy with a personal letter inviting Duan to move south. Duan also feared abduction by Japanese agents in Tianjin and accepted the invitation. On January 21 he left Tianjin, arriving in Nanjing the next day. Chiang personally went to the dock to welcome him, treating him with the respect of a disciple and engaging in long discussions of history.

VII. Chiang Kai-shek Arranges His Retirement in Shanghai

Chiang then arranged for Duan to move to Shanghai, where the Nationalist government provided his living expenses. In 1935 Duan was appointed a member of the National Government, though he never assumed the post.

In 1936 Duan suffered a recurrence of stomach illness and died in Shanghai at the age of seventy-one. Chiang sent a telegram praising his “merits in supporting the republic and rebuilding the nation, truly irreplaceable, a founding hero,” and proposed a state funeral, expressing profound personal grief as a former student. (Duan was twenty-two years older than Chiang.)

VIII. Patriotic, Devoted to the People, Pure as Water

Throughout his life Duan Qirui upheld noble character, loved his country and people, possessed exceptional ability, and was stern and reserved in manner. He lived simply and was incorruptible: he did not smoke, drink, keep concubines, gamble, embezzle, or take advantage—hence the nickname “Premier of the Six Nots.” He left no savings, owned no property, and accepted no gifts. When the Jiangsu military governor sent him a valuable screen, Duan returned it the next day. When Zhang Zuolin of the Northeast sent local specialties, Duan refused; only after repeated pleas did he reluctantly accept two fish.

IX. Sending a Concubine to Marry Her True Love

At the time, high officials often had multiple wives and concubines. Duan’s fourth concubine was beautiful and well educated, and Duan was fond of her. Yet after entering his household she was constantly unhappy, for she already loved another man. Duan gave her up and allowed her to marry the one she loved, an act long praised as a fine story.

Liang Qichao commented on Duan: “Disregarding personal gain or loss, he courageously assumed responsibility for the nation—perhaps unmatched in the entire country.” Wu Peifu said: “In a world without public-mindedness, concern for the people becomes a chronic illness; the loss of this pillar in midstream is the loss of a great contributor.”

X. Vegetarian Diet, Incense, Buddhist Chanting, Poetry

The Nanjing National Government’s commendation declared: “Upright and incorrupt in conduct, loyal and devoted in serving the state; withdrawing with integrity, striving to uphold justice; lofty in character, with outstanding merit and great renown, admired throughout the seas—he should be accorded a state funeral.” Duan Qirui was a devout Buddhist, often ate vegetarian food, burned incense, and chanted sutras. He could expound the Diamond Sutra and the Lotus Sutra. He enjoyed the game of Go, played mahjong, loved poetry, and left behind dozens of poems, including Poems from the Abode of the Right Path and Reflections from the Abode of the Right Path.

Duan Qirui’s coffin was placed at the Wofo Temple in Beijing and in 1964 he was buried at the Wanan Public Cemetery on Xiangshan in Beijing.

XI. Final Testament: The “Eight Don’ts”

Duan Qirui’s final testament, the “Eight Don’ts,” reads:
Do not lightly engage in political strife because of personal opinions;
Do not indulge in empty talk while neglecting practice;
Do not initiate non-urgent projects and squander public funds;
Do not trust extreme words or actions that undermine the foundations of the state.
Those who conduct diplomacy must not forget to strengthen national defense;
Those who manage education must not forget to preserve the national essence;
Those who govern families must not abandon the nation’s rites and moral teachings;
Those who pursue learning must not chase the fleeting glitter of fashion.

These “Eight Don’ts” are Duan Qirui’s precious admonitions to the nation and a true reflection of his lifelong practice of serving the country and the people, making him a worthy exemplar of civic virtue.