Chapter 18: Reassessing Feng Yuxiang: The Ever-Shifting General Who Followed the Wind, and His Mysterious Death by Suffocation on a Soviet Ship

Feng Yuxiang (1882–1948) was a famous warlord who emerged after the fall of the Qing dynasty. For twenty years, he dominated battlefields across the Northwest, North China, and the Central Plains. He constantly shifted allegiances, repeatedly defecting among rival warlord factions, earning the nickname “the Turncoat General.” In the end, he defected to the Communist Party. Mao Zedong, who judged people solely by whether they supported him, praised Feng’s “great achievements.”

I. Early Anti-Qing Activities Failed, Punished by Law

Feng Yuxiang was born in 1882 in Baoding, Hebei. His father was from Chaoxian County in Anhui, a bricklayer by trade, and the family was poor. His father passed the military examination and joined the Huai Army, once accompanying Zuo Zongtang on the campaign to Xinjiang, later returning with the army to Baoding.

At age ten, Feng attended a private school. At eleven, he filled a vacancy for a soldier in a military camp and began drawing pay. At twelve, he entered a training battalion and practiced with firearms. At fourteen, he became a regular soldier in the Huai Army. At twenty, Feng transferred to Yuan Shikai’s Right Guard Army. In 1911, at age twenty-nine, he was a battalion commander and participated in the failed “Luanzhou Uprising” against the Qing. He was dismissed from office, prosecuted, and escorted back to Baoding.

In January 1912, the Northern Revolutionary Military Government was established, with Feng Yuxiang serving as chief of staff. In 1914, Feng became a brigade commander and participated in suppressing the White Wolf (Bailang) uprisings in Henan and Shaanxi.

II. Supporting Yuan, Then Opposing Yuan

In 1915, when Yuan Shikai proclaimed himself emperor, Feng Yuxiang was ordered by Yuan to enter Sichuan to fight the anti-Yuan forces. He defeated Cai E, but secretly contacted Cai to negotiate a ceasefire. Together with Sichuan governor Chen Huan, he declared independence and opposed Yuan.

In 1916, Feng led his troops to capture Xuzhou and occupy Naxi. In March, Yuan Shikai, citing Feng’s “outstanding merit” in capturing Xuzhou, conferred upon him the title of “Third-Class Baron.” The Beiyang government, dissatisfied with Feng’s ceasefire negotiations, dismissed him from his brigade command in April 1917.

In July 1917, Feng led his former troops to suppress Zhang Xun’s restoration attempt and was reinstated as brigade commander.

III. Early Christian Faith

In 1917, Sun Yat-sen launched a rival government in the south under the banner of constitutional protection. Duan Qirui ordered Feng to lead troops south to attack Sun Yat-sen and Lu Rongting’s Constitutional Protection Army.

In February 1918, while marching south, Feng issued a telegram from Wuxue in Hubei advocating peace and calling for a ceasefire, opposing Duan Qirui and defecting to Cao Kun of the Zhili clique. In March, Feng entered western Hunan, pacified bandit leader Zeng Shangwu, and stationed his troops in Changde, serving as garrison commander of western Hunan.

Feng had earlier converted to Christianity in Beijing. While stationed in Changde, influenced by his physician, he frequently attended church services, established chapels within the army, and baptized more than one hundred officers and soldiers.

IV. Soviet Assistance and the Expansion of the Northwestern Army

In 1921, Feng Yuxiang led his troops into Shaanxi and assumed the position of military governor. He expanded his territory there with strong Soviet support, absorbing miscellaneous forces, reorganizing and training his troops, which became known as the “Northwestern Army.”

During the First Zhili–Fengtian War in 1922, Zhang Zuolin allied with Duan Qirui and Sun Yat-sen against Cao Kun and Wu Peifu. Feng led troops out of Shaanxi to support the Zhili clique, defeated Henan governor Zhao Ti, and became military governor of Henan. However, due to the arbitrary execution of surrendered general Bao Dequan, Wu Peifu removed Feng from the Henan governorship. Feng’s troops were then stationed at Nanyuan, south of Beijing.

V. Turning to the Soviets and Sun Yat-sen

In 1923, after Sun Yat-sen adopted a policy of alliance with the Soviet Union and accommodation of the Communists, he sent H. H. Kung to meet Feng Yuxiang. Feng became enamored with Soviet Russia and admired socialism. He hung portraits of Lenin in his residence and was praised by Soviet diplomat Adolph Joffe. Soviet ambassador Karakhan called Feng “a pillar of China’s liberation movement.”

Encouraged by Sun Yat-sen, Feng resolved to seek an opportunity to overthrow Cao Kun and Wu Peifu. In 1923, Feng was again appointed chairman of Henan Province.

In 1924, Zhang Zuolin, Sun Yat-sen, and Lu Yongxiang formed an anti-Zhili alliance. The Kuomintang urged Feng to join in overthrowing the Zhili clique, and Feng showed intent to defect. In September, the Second Zhili–Fengtian War broke out. Wu Peifu appointed Feng commander of the Third Army, but Feng secretly reached an agreement at Gubeikou, arranging a ceasefire in Rehe.

In October, while Wu Peifu was engaged in fierce fighting with Fengtian forces at Shanhaiguan, Feng accepted a bribe of 500,000 silver dollars from Zhang Xueliang and declared his defection, renaming his forces the “National Army.” On October 20, he seized full control of Beijing, placed President Cao Kun under house arrest, expelled the already deposed Puyi from the Forbidden City, and carried out the “Beijing Coup.” This led to Wu Peifu’s defeat, a major victory for the Fengtian forces, and Zhang Zuolin’s entry into Beijing.

After occupying Beijing, Feng immediately met with Soviet ambassador Karakhan and issued a telegram inviting Sun Yat-sen to come north to discuss national affairs.

In December 1924, Zhang Zuolin compromised with Duan Qirui. Duan became provisional chief executive, sidelined Feng from Beijing, and appointed him Inspector-General of Northwestern Frontier Defense, stationed at Zhangjiakou.

VI. Receiving Large Quantities of Soviet Arms

In 1925, Feng stationed 150,000 troops in Zhangjiakou and invited Li Dazhao to serve as director of the army’s political department. Ambassador Karakhan facilitated the entry of Soviet military advisers into the Northwestern Army. Feng ordered weapons from the Soviet Union, which were continuously shipped to Zhangjiakou. He also sent officers to the Soviet Union for training and study.

At the end of 1925, Feng supported Fengtian general Guo Songling’s rebellion and joined the anti–Zhang Zuolin war. In January 1926, he was defeated and forced out of power, retreating to Baotou. In March, Feng visited the Soviet Union. In April, his troops launched another coup, forcing Duan Qirui out and releasing Cao Kun. The attempt soon failed; Feng withdrew from Beijing and held Nankou.

In April, Feng lured former White Russian general Annenkov and handed him over to Soviet personnel. The Cheka abducted him back to the Soviet Union, where he was executed.

VII. Visit and Inspection in the Soviet Union

In May 1926, Feng arrived in Moscow for inspection and met Soviet leaders Mikhail Kalinin, Kliment Voroshilov, and Lenin’s widow Nadezhda Krupskaya. Feng repeatedly requested a meeting with Stalin but was politely declined.

In August 1926, Li Dazhao sent three telegrams urging Feng to return to China and entrusted Yu Youren to go to Moscow to persuade him. The Guangzhou National Government appointed Feng as a committee member. Feng departed for China in August, accompanied by a Soviet advisory group and many Communist Party members, including Deng Xiaoping.

The Soviet Union shipped 15,000 rifles, 15 million rounds of ammunition, and 30,000 grenades to strengthen Feng’s forces. Feng’s army retreated from Nankou back to the Northwest.

VIII. Joining the Kuomintang and Pledging Loyalty to Sun Yat-sen

In September, Feng arrived in Wuyuan, Suiyuan, issued the “Wuyuan Oath” proclamation, and held a flag-changing ceremony, replacing the five-colored flag with the Blue Sky, White Sun flag. Feng announced that all officers and soldiers would collectively join the Kuomintang and pledge loyalty to Sun Yat-sen in support of the Northern Expedition. Feng personally carried a red flag while marching through the streets of Wuyuan.

In January 1927, Feng arrived in Xi’an and temporarily held back, observing developments. He ignored the Guangzhou National Government’s demand that he immediately join the Northern Expedition. In May, Feng led his troops through Tong Pass, captured Zhengzhou, and in June took Kaifeng, joining forces with Tang Shengzhi in the Central Plains.

IX. Meeting Wang Jingwei and Supporting the Split with the Communists

On June 10, 1927, Wang Jingwei met Feng in Zhengzhou and agreed to have Tang Shengzhi withdraw to Hubei. Feng took charge of the administration of Henan, Shaanxi, and Gansu provinces. He supported the reunification of the Nanjing and Wuhan governments and favored a break with the Communist Party.

On June 19, Feng met Chiang Kai-shek, Li Zongren, and Bai Chongxi in Xuzhou and reached an agreement to “split with the Communists and purge the Party.” Feng was appointed Minister of Military and Political Affairs in the Nanjing government, with a monthly subsidy of 2.5 million yuan for his army. Feng proposed erecting a bronze statue of Chiang, who addressed Feng as “elder brother” (Feng was five years older).

Feng agreed to expel all Communist cadres and party members under his jurisdiction to cleanse his own record.

X. Anti-Buddhist Movement: Closing Temples and Expelling Monks

In 1927, Feng’s forces carried out a campaign in Henan to close temples and expel monks. The Xiangguo Temple was converted into a marketplace. Across Henan Province, an anti-Buddhist movement was launched: monks and nuns were expelled, temple properties confiscated, and temples converted into schools, relief centers, libraries, or entertainment venues.

Following Henan’s example, Hebei, Shandong, and Shaanxi provinces followed suit. Buddhism in North China nearly collapsed—one of Feng Yuxiang’s greatest calamities.

XI. Sworn Brotherhood with Chiang Kai-shek

In February 1928, mediated by Shao Lizi, Feng Yuxiang and Chiang Kai-shek exchanged oath documents in Kaifeng and became sworn brothers. In May, Chiang and Feng met at Dangjiazhuang in Jinan and decided to continue the Northern Expedition. Later that month, they met again in Zhengzhou, where Chiang promised Shandong to Feng.

However, after the completion of the Northern Expedition and the troop reorganization conference, cooperation between Chiang and Feng turned into division.

In April 1929, dissatisfied with troop reduction decisions, Feng feigned illness, left Nanjing, and returned north to Tong Pass. In May, he assumed the title of commander-in-chief of the “Northwestern Army for Protecting the Party and Saving the Nation,” but was soon defeated by combined internal and external attacks from the Nanjing government and forced to flee to Shanxi.

On May 22, 1929, Feng’s subordinates Han Fuju and Shi Yousan telegraphed their support for Chiang and defected. On May 23, Nanjing expelled Feng from the Kuomintang and issued a warrant for his arrest. In June, Feng lost his freedom in Shanxi and was confined at Mount Wutai.

Feng’s confidant Lu Zhonglin secretly visited him and conveyed instructions to request Yan Xishan for his release. Yan was also dissatisfied with the troop reduction decisions.

XII. Alliance with Yan Xishan Against Chiang

In February 1930, Yan Xishan personally went to welcome Feng to Taiyuan, and the two agreed to oppose Chiang jointly. Yan provided Feng with 800,000 yuan, allowing him to return to Tong Pass and regain command.

In October 1929, twenty-seven of Feng’s subordinates, including Song Zheyuan and Sun Liangcheng, jointly telegraphed opposition to Chiang, supporting Yan Xishan as commander-in-chief and Feng as deputy commander. War against Chiang was launched.

After the outbreak of war, Chiang fought Feng militarily while courting Yan politically. Yan soon declared support for a political solution, urged Feng to cease hostilities, and leaked Feng’s military secrets to Chiang. Chiang appointed Yan as deputy commander.

In December 1929, after defeating Feng’s forces and the Guangxi clique, Chiang turned his strength against Yan. Under increasing pressure, Yan hardened his opposition to Chiang.

In March 1930, Yan personally escorted Feng back to Tong Pass. On the very day Feng arrived, he rallied fifty-seven subordinates to telegraph demands for Chiang’s resignation. In April, Yan assumed the post of commander-in-chief in Taiyuan, Li Zongren became deputy commander in Guilin, and Feng assumed the same position in Tong Pass. The Central Plains War erupted.

In August 1930, Feng’s forces advanced toward Xuzhou in seven columns, placing Chiang’s army in grave danger. However, Chiang’s forces recaptured Jinan from Yan’s troops. Yan preserved his strength and withdrew to Shanxi, leaving Feng isolated. In September, Zhang Xueliang supported Chiang, called for a ceasefire, and sent troops into Beiping–Tianjin and Hebei to pressure Feng and Yan. Feng’s subordinates Shi Yousan, Pang Bingxun, and Liu Chunrong were bribed by Chiang.

XIII. Chiang Captures Zhengzhou; Northwestern Army Disintegrates

In October 1930, Chiang’s forces captured Kaifeng and Zhengzhou. In November, Yan and Feng jointly telegraphed their resignation from Taiyuan. The Northwestern Army disintegrated, and Feng permanently lost his power.

After his defeat, Feng lived in seclusion in Fenyang, devoted himself to reading, and strengthened ties with the Communist Party.

In 1931, Feng incited Shi Yousan to rebel against Zhang Xueliang but was defeated by the Northeastern Army. He then incited former subordinates in Gansu to oppose Chiang and was again defeated.

XIV. Failed Attempts at a Comeback; Retreat into Study

Feng attempted repeatedly to organize opposition to Chiang and make a comeback, but all efforts failed, leaving him only the path of turning fully toward the Communist Party.

In 1931, Feng lived in seclusion on Mount Tai, studying and inviting Communists to lecture. He hung a self-written couplet in his room:
“Is there ever a day to rest one’s shoulders when saving the people?
Only through revolution does one reach the summit of humanity.”
His thinking increasingly aligned with Communist revolution.

In 1933, when Li Jishen and the 19th Route Army launched the Fujian Incident against Chiang, Feng sent representatives to participate.

In 1937, Feng went to Wuhan and established a printing house producing anti-Japanese propaganda and the works of Lenin and Mao Zedong. In 1940, he moved to Chongqing. In 1942, he chaired the “Christian Thrift Donation” association and promoted donation campaigns in Sichuan.

XV. Visit to the United States and Public Anti-Chiang Statements

In 1946, Feng went to the United States to inspect water conservancy projects. In 1947, he issued a statement opposing Chiang Kai-shek, warning that Chiang must be held responsible for arrests and repression. In November, he published Why I Broke with Chiang Kai-shek. In 1948, he joined the Revolutionary Committee of the Kuomintang and served as director of political affairs.

XVI. Mysterious Death by Suffocation on a Soviet Ship

In 1948, Feng Yuxiang accepted an invitation from the Chinese Communist Party and boarded a Soviet ship to return to China from the United States. While passing through the Black Sea, the ship exploded. Feng was suffocated by fumes and died.

His family alleged assassination, but by whom remains a mystery. Feng died at the age of sixty-six. His body was transported to Moscow, where the Soviet military attended his funeral, granting him the honors of a fallen soldier.

XVII. Mao Zedong: “Great Achievements”

Mao Zedong commented on Feng Yuxiang: “Great achievements, known to the whole world,” but also called him a “hypocrite.” Zhou Enlai praised him as a “democratic fighter, immortal in history.”

In 1982, Vice President Ulanhu commemorated Feng Yuxiang’s centenary, calling him “a respectable democratic fighter and a sincere friend of the Communist Party.”

XVIII. A General Who Followed the Wind and Repeatedly Defected

Feng Yuxiang was renowned as the “Turncoat General.” Historians point out that he defected nine times in his life:

1911 – Anti-Qing Luanzhou Uprising
1915 – Against Yuan Shikai
1918 – Against Duan Qirui
1924 – Against Cao Kun and Wu Peifu (Beijing Coup)
1925 – Against Zhang Zuolin (joining the anti-Fengtian war)
1926 – Against the Beiyang regime (Wuyuan Oath)
1927 – Against the Communists (KMT–CCP split)
1930 – Against Chiang Kai-shek (Central Plains War)
1947 – Against Chiang Kai-shek (Civil War period)

These do not include his 1923 role in helping Cao Kun expel Li Yuanhong, or his 1924 arrest and house arrest of Cao Kun.

Feng was also notorious for kidnapping and assassinating political rivals, allegedly plotting or carrying out the murders of Xu Shuzheng, Ma Tingxun, Guo Jian, Zhang Jiangong, and others.

XIX. Twenty Years of Brotherhood and Repeated Reversals with Chiang

Feng Yuxiang became sworn brothers with Chiang Kai-shek in 1928 and finally broke with him in 1948. Over those twenty years, their relationship swung back and forth repeatedly. Chiang viewed Feng as a usable chess piece.

After Feng’s defeat in the Central Plains War, though he had lost real power, Chiang still allowed him room to maneuver, granting him nominal military and political titles, permitting activities in Wuhan and Chongqing, and even allowing him to travel to the United States in 1946. Chiang tolerated Feng’s gradual pro-Communist leanings until Feng openly declared opposition in the United States in 1947.

After Feng finally defected to the Communists, Mao Zedong gave him a definitive verdict, not only praising him highly but also ordering the construction of a grand mausoleum for him at the western foot of Mount Tai. Mao and others personally sent funeral couplets. Feng’s former residences in Anhui and Chongqing were renovated as memorials. His later wife, Li Dequan, became Vice Chairwoman of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference.

XX. Love for the People and Refusal to Collaborate with Japan

Two points in Feng Yuxiang’s life deserve affirmation. First, he never collaborated with Japan (unlike Mao Zedong), never associated with the Japanese, and consistently maintained resistance against Japan. Second, there is no record of him harming civilians.
His army promoted the “Song of Loving the People”:
“Our provisions and pay come from the people.
We eat their fat and wear their blood.
We must not let the people suffer.”
Feng wrote a poem titled I:
“Born a commoner, living a commoner’s life,
No talk of luxury, no craving for wealth.
I give my whole heart and strength,
I write what I say, I say what I do,
Striving and striving—every word true!”

This may beautify himself somewhat, but the poem carries a genuine commoner’s tone, unlike Mao Zedong’s inhuman, tyrannical poetry.

XXI. On Harm to the Nation and People: Less Than One-Thousandth of Mao

Feng Yuxiang was a reckless strongman of chaotic times—greedy for money, grasping for power, following the wind, acting opportunistically, an unrefined military brute. He shifted repeatedly, lacked real political vision, and made little positive contribution to the nation or society.

In terms of harming the nation and the people, however, he was not even one-hundredth—indeed not one-thousandth—as destructive as Mao Zedong.

Feng Yuxiang’s life exemplifies the chaos of warlordism. The emergence of the “Feng Yuxiang phenomenon” was due to the collapse of the Qing dynasty, the disintegration of the court, and the collapse of authority. Law and order vanished; nothing mattered except the gun. Across north and south, bands of rough heroes emerged, each using strange tactics to fight wars and scramble for power, while the people suffered displacement and endless misery—“Better to be a dog in peaceful times than a man in chaotic ages.”

After decades of repeated slaughter, Mao Zedong seized the country through bloodshed, and people believed peace had finally arrived. Instead, Mao created another thirty years of chaos, killing tens of millions more. This is the ultimate lesson—the gravest consequence of Yuan Shikai’s overthrow of the Qing dynasty.