Chapter 15: Reassessing Feng Guozhang: Deceived by Sun into “Peaceful Unification,” Missing the Chance to “Strike Straight at Guangdong and Guangxi”

Feng Guozhang (1859–1919) was one of Yuan Shikai’s leading generals and one of the “Three Outstanding Figures of the Beiyang Army.” During the Republican period, he served as Acting President for more than a year. Feng Guozhang was loyal to Yuan Shikai but opposed Yuan’s attempt to proclaim himself emperor.

I. Sun Yat-sen Deceived Feng with “Peaceful Unification” While Continuously Planning the Northern Expedition

The greatest mistake of Feng Guozhang’s life was missing the opportunity to cooperate with Duan Qirui to unify China by force. He clung to the illusion of “peaceful unification,” while Sun Yat-sen was, in fact, constantly planning the Northern Expedition. History later proved Feng wrong. Sadly, he lived only to the age of sixty. Had he lived another eight years, he would have witnessed with his own eyes the military unification of China through the Northern Expedition.

Feng Guozhang was born in 1859 in Hejian County, Hebei. His family had once been one of the prominent households in the village, but later declined. At age seven he entered a private school. As a youth, he was intelligent, eager to learn, broad-minded, ambitious, diligent, and hardworking. At twenty-five he enlisted as a soldier, and the following year entered the Tianjin Military Academy, where he also studied classical texts and history. While at the academy, he returned home and passed the xiucai examination. He graduated with excellent results in 1890. After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894, he was recommended by Nie Shicheng to inspect military affairs in Japan and compiled several large volumes of military training manuals. In 1896, he joined Yuan Shikai, assisting in the organization and training of the New Army. He served as Director of Battalion Affairs and concurrently as Superintendent of the Infantry Academy. Together with Wang Shizhen and Duan Qirui, he co-edited twenty-two volumes of the textbook Detailed Illustrated Explanations of Training Drills.

II. Merit in Suppressing the Boxers in Shandong; Praised by Germans at a Military Review

In 1899, Feng Guozhang accompanied Yuan Shikai to Shandong, reorganizing more than ten thousand local militia troops into the Right Army Vanguard. He achieved merit in pursuing and suppressing the Boxer forces and was promoted to Acting Prefect, overseeing military inspections in Shandong.

In the autumn of 1900, Yuan Shikai held autumn maneuvers and a military review in Jinan and invited the German Governor of Jiaozhou Bay to observe. The troops were robust and disciplined, displaying formidable military bearing. Feng Guozhang issued loud and clear commands: “Ten thousand feet rose in unison, ten thousand rifles fired as one; advancing like surging waves, standing like upright timber.” The German governor praised Feng Guozhang, Wang Shizhen, and Duan Qirui as the “Three Outstanding Figures of the Beiyang Army.”

III. Lecturing Qing Princes

In 1901, Yuan Shikai established a Military and Political Bureau in Baoding and appointed Feng Guozhang as Director of the Training Office. In 1903, when the Central Training Office was established in Shuntian Prefecture, Feng became Director of Military Education. In 1906, he concurrently served as Director of the Imperial Nobility Military Academy and established a lecture institute for princes and nobles, where Feng personally lectured Qing princes.

In 1908, after the deaths of the Guangxu Emperor and Empress Dowager Cixi, the Prince Regent Zaifeng centralized power and dismissed Yuan Shikai from office, sending him back to his hometown. Fearing implication, Feng Guozhang proactively requested leave on pretext, which was denied. He continued handling military affairs and maintained secret contact with Yuan.

IV. Merit in the Siege of Hankou Against the Revolutionaries

When the Xinhai Revolution erupted in 1911, Feng Guozhang was ordered to lead troops to Hubei to suppress the uprising. En route through Henan, Feng secretly met Yuan Shikai. Yuan instructed him to “advance slowly and wait,” saying that “without thorough preparation, it would be impossible to lead an attack.” Soon after, the Qing government recalled Yuan Shikai to power. Yuan then petitioned for Feng Guozhang to replace Yinchang as commander of the First Army and ordered Feng to attack Hankou and Hanyang.

The revolutionaries dispersed into small units and hid among streets and houses. Unable to besiege them effectively, Qing troops resorted to setting fire to streets, shops, and civilian homes, leaving revolutionaries nowhere to hide. The fire burned for three days and nights. Civilian and commercial losses were incalculable. Hankou and Hanyang were captured, and Wuchang could have been taken with ease. However, Yuan Shikai secretly ordered Feng to halt, intending to use revolutionary pressure to force the Qing emperor to abdicate.

Feng, not understanding Yuan’s intentions, grew suspicious and personally went to Beijing to petition Empress Dowager Longyu for 4 million taels of funds to suppress the rebellion. Longyu agreed to allocate three months’ worth of military pay and planned to summon Feng for an audience. Unexpectedly, Yuan Shikai preemptively met Longyu and ordered Duan Qirui to go to Hankou to replace Feng. In December, Feng returned to Beijing to command 12,000 imperial guards, including Han, Mongol, and Manchu troops.

V. Assisting Yuan to Pacify the Imperial Guards; Opposing Forced Abdication of the Qing Emperor

In January 1912, Sun Yat-sen assumed office in Nanjing as Provisional President of the Republic. Yuan Shikai instructed Feng Guozhang and fifteen Beiyang generals to issue a joint telegram declaring “unswerving support for constitutional monarchy and opposition to republicanism.” The Qing court recognized Feng’s loyalty and appointed him commander of the Imperial Guards.

When Yuan forced the Qing emperor to abdicate, the Imperial Guards opposed the move, and peace terms were delayed. Feng assisted Yuan in persuading the guards and pacifying the crisis, earning merit. In 1912, he was appointed Military Governor of Zhili.

In 1913, Sun Yat-sen launched an anti-Yuan war. Feng Guozhang, under Yuan’s orders, led troops south to suppress the anti-Yuan forces, fighting outside Nanjing for half a month. In September, Feng captured Nanjing, ending Sun’s rebellion. Feng was then appointed Military Governor of Jiangsu. During his years governing Jiangsu, economic and cultural development improved notably. In 1914, Yuan arranged the marriage of his family tutor Zhou Di to Feng, with dowry goods totaling 120 loads. The wedding was grand and lavish, costing tens of thousands of taels. In June, Yuan conferred upon Feng the title “Senior General Who Proclaims Martial Might.”

VI. Coordinating Five Generals to Oppose Yuan’s Imperial Ambitions

In 1915, Yuan Shikai began plotting to proclaim himself emperor. Feng Guozhang was shocked upon learning of this and personally went to Beijing in June to question Yuan. Yuan neither confirmed nor denied it, swearing to heaven and the sun that it was untrue. He thereafter gradually distanced himself from Feng.

In December, Yuan appointed Feng Chief of the General Staff. Feng declined on grounds of illness, refusing to go to Beijing. Yuan repeatedly urged him north. On December 25, Cai E declared independence to oppose Yuan. In March 1916, Feng openly opposed the monarchy. On March 19, Feng contacted Zhang Xun in Xuzhou, Li Chun in Jiangxi, Jin Yunpeng in Shandong, and Zhu Rui in Zhejiang, jointly sending a secret telegram—the “Secret Telegram of the Five Generals”—calling for the abolition of the imperial system. Yuan was so enraged he nearly fainted several times. Realizing widespread betrayal, Yuan announced the cancellation of the monarchy on March 22. On April 1 and April 16, Feng again publicly telegraphed the Beijing government urging Yuan to abdicate as soon as possible. Provinces followed suit, internal divisions deepened, and Yuan died of illness and rage on June 6.

VII. Merit as Jiangsu Military Governor; Proposal to Erect a Bronze Statue for Feng

After Yuan Shikai’s death, Vice President Li Yuanhong succeeded to the presidency. In October 1916, Feng Guozhang was elected Vice President, taking office in Nanjing while concurrently serving as Jiangsu Military Governor. Stationed in Nanjing, Feng maintained social order, earning widespread acclaim. In 1917, various Jiangsu circles proposed constructing Huayuan Park to erect a bronze statue in his honor. Upon learning of this, Feng immediately ordered the plan canceled and redirected the funds to establish factories for the poor and labor promotion workshops.

In February 1917, Feng went to Beijing to mediate the “Presidency–Cabinet Dispute” between Li Yuanhong and Duan Qirui over declaring war on Germany. In March, Duan resigned in dissatisfaction and went to Tianjin. Feng, at Li’s request, went to Tianjin to persuade Duan to return, and they returned to Beijing together. In June, however, Li abruptly dismissed Duan as premier. Feng telegraphed Li, suggesting Wang Shizhen form a cabinet, but Wang declined. In June, Zhang Xun entered Beijing with troops at Li’s invitation to mediate, and on July 1 launched the “Zhang Xun Restoration.”

VIII. Acting President Advocates “Peaceful Amalgamation”

On July 12, the restoration was suppressed by punitive forces. Li Yuanhong telegraphed Feng Guozhang to come to Beijing as Acting President, with Duan Qirui reinstated as premier. On August 1, Feng led the 16th Division into Beijing to assume office. He invited Wang Shizhen and Duan Qirui to the presidential residence, reminiscing about the brotherhood of the “Three Outstanding Figures of the Beiyang Army,” saying: “The three brothers are one body with interlinked branches; we seek only to work together.”

Duan Qirui was dissatisfied with Feng Guozhang’s “obsession with money,” but did not voice it openly to avoid harming relations. That Feng became extremely wealthy is true: he owned 3,000 mu of land, over a thousand houses, three gold mines, and ten banks and silver houses. Yet his total assets were said to be no more than 3 million yuan—far less than Zhang Xun’s 50 million. Politically, Duan favored military unification, while Feng advocated “peaceful amalgamation.”

IX. Duan Advocates “Striking Straight at Guangdong and Guangxi,” Feng Urges “Stop When Enough Is Enough,” Missing a Historic Opportunity

In September 1917, Sun Yat-sen established the “Constitutional Protection Military Government” in Guangzhou. War between north and south resumed. Feng Guozhang favored peace and found himself isolated in Beijing. In January 1918, he was forced to issue a punitive order, dispatching Cao Kun and others south to attack Hunan. In February, he issued a “self-blame proclamation” to placate the pro-war faction and ease tensions with Duan Qirui.

Still unwilling to abandon “peaceful unification,” Feng secretly telegraphed Cao Kun, instructing him to “stop when enough is enough” and “limit operations to recovering Hunan.” At the same time, Duan Qirui telegraphed Wu Peifu, urging him to “strike straight at Guangdong and Guangxi.” Wu Peifu, citing insufficient funds and arms, halted operations. Thus, Duan’s military unification effort came to an end.

During Feng Guozhang’s tenure as Acting President in 1918, he strongly advocated peaceful unification and opposed Duan Qirui’s military approach. He allied with the military governors of Hubei, Jiangxi, and Jiangsu to counter Duan, reigniting the “Presidency–Cabinet Dispute.” In late August, the new parliament (the Anfu Parliament) convened, and Duan declared his resignation. Feng was also compelled to announce that he would not run for president. In September, Xu Shichang was elected president, and in October both Feng and Duan stepped down.

X. Final Words Still Clinging to “Peaceful Unification,” Dying with Regret

In the spring of 1919, Feng returned to his hometown of Hejian to manage family affairs and invested in enterprises such as the Kailuan Coal Mine and the Zhonghua Industrial Bank. In October, he returned to reside in Beijing and died there in December at the age of sixty. Before his death, he dictated his last words to Xu Shichang: “Peaceful unification—I did not live to see it. I die with regret. I hope the President will complete it soon.”

Upon Feng’s death, the Beijing government ordered flags nationwide to be flown at half-mast for three days. Xu Shichang and Duan Qirui personally visited Feng’s residence to pay their respects. Duan wept loudly before the coffin. The government held a state funeral for Feng, and a month-long public memorial was observed in Beijing.

XI. Deceived by Sun While the Northern Expedition and Military Unification Were Being Planned

Feng Guozhang and his old comrade Duan Qirui clashed in the “Presidency–Cabinet Dispute.” Feng advocated “peaceful unification,” while Duan insisted on “military unification.” Feng was deceived by good intentions. Once the Qing dynasty fell, banditry flourished and political power rested on the gun—how could there be “peaceful unification”? Sun Yat-sen had long been planning the Northern Expedition in the south. If you did not attack him, he would attack you—who would listen to talk of “peaceful unification”?

Duan Qirui was more realistic. Feng refused to listen. Even on his deathbed, Feng clung to the illusion of “peaceful unification,” missing the opportunity bestowed by history and allowing Sun Yat-sen to ally with Russia and the Communists, inviting wolves into the house. This ultimately led to the rise of the Communist Party under Mao Zedong, who seized power by force and brought decades of calamity upon the nation.