Chapter 02: Reassessing the Opium War and the Daoguang Emperor

Both the Nationalist Party (KMT) and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) have long promoted Lin Zexu as the national hero of the Opium War, while largely avoiding mention of the Daoguang Emperor—because he belonged to the Qing dynasty that was later overthrown. Overthrown emperors, by convention, are not spoken of favorably. This kind of propaganda, however, departs from historical reality.

I. The Daoguang Emperor Was the Supreme Commander of the Opium War

In fact, the supreme commander of the Opium War was the Daoguang Emperor himself; Lin Zexu was the frontline commander dispatched by the court. This is comparable to the Korean War of 1950: Peng Dehuai was sent to command at the front, but Mao Zedong was the overall commander-in-chief. All of Peng’s major decisions were subject to Mao’s approval. Likewise, Lin Zexu’s actions in Guangzhou were carried out under the directives of the Daoguang Emperor in Beijing.

II. A World-Shocking Destruction of Massive Quantities of Narcotics

Overcoming strong resistance within the court from the “gradual prohibition” faction, the Daoguang Emperor displayed extraordinary decisiveness by sending Lin Zexu to Guangzhou to confiscate and destroy enormous quantities of opium—an unprecedented anti-drug campaign. This was a remarkable act, worthy of historical recognition. Britain resorted to military force to protect its drug trade, and the Daoguang Emperor directed resistance.

However, when confronted with the newly risen British Empire’s modern, well-trained forces—numbering only slightly over ten thousand—the Qing dynasty, despite mobilizing more than 200,000 troops, was unable to withstand the superior ships and artillery of several dozen British warships. The British advanced as far as Nanjing, forcing the Qing court to sign a treaty.

Although the anti-opium campaign ultimately failed, both the Daoguang Emperor and Lin Zexu left honorable names in history.

III. The British Parliament Approved the Expedition by a Vote of 271 to 262

For Britain, the Opium War was an unjust war. The opium trade itself was an immoral act of drug trafficking, and at the time, a majority of British public opinion opposed it. Parliament debated fiercely for three days. Only because the Queen had already delivered a speech in support did Parliament narrowly approve the war budget—by 271 votes to 262.

Britain was well aware of the injustice of the opium trade. Its primary objective in going to war was to force open China’s markets and secure the opening of five treaty ports. The war lasted about three years, with relatively limited casualties on both sides: approximately 3,000 Qing soldiers were killed, compared to about 70 British troops. The Qing dynasty paid a total indemnity of 21 million taels of silver and ceded Hong Kong—then merely a small fishing village.

Compared with the Sino-Japanese War of 1894, the damage inflicted on China by the Opium War was relatively small. The Sino-Japanese War lasted less than one year; the Qing mobilized 630,000 troops and suffered 12,000 deaths, while Japan deployed 240,000 troops and lost 1,100. After defeat, the Qing paid an indemnity of 230 million taels of silver and ceded Taiwan. China’s losses in that war far exceeded those of the Opium War.

IV. The Maoist Communists Mass-Produced Opium and Profited from Drug Trafficking

The failure of the Daoguang Emperor’s opium prohibition was primarily due to internal factors. The faction advocating gradual prohibition wielded immense influence, and anti-opium measures remained largely superficial throughout the late Qing period. Shockingly, even during the Communist base period in Yan’an, the CCP itself cultivated opium to generate revenue.

The positive historical significance of the Opium War lies in the fact that the sound of cannon fire awakened the Chinese people, compelling China to face the world, absorb Western learning, open itself to reform and self-strengthening, and thus begin the course of modern Chinese history.

V. A Moral Light and Ethical Model

The Daoguang Emperor handled state affairs personally, governed diligently, upheld frugality, and maintained moral discipline—qualities that make him a model ruler.

John King Fairbank: “Cautious and careful, even timid.”

Yu Dahua: “Rule-abiding, restrained, and unostentatious.”

Feng Erkang: “Followed the imperial household rules, governed diligently, and loved the people.”

Xiao Yishan: “Frugality worthy of praise.”

Jiaqing Emperor: “Possessed both loyalty and filial piety.”

Draft History of the Qing: “Virtuous in frugality, magnanimous in benevolence.”

Zhang Yufen: “Frugal in virtue, a ruler of moral character.”

Karl Gützlaff: “Of honest character and compassionate toward humanity,” though “lacking in clarity and decisiveness, a natural gift for an emperor.”

VI. The Supreme Model of Filial Piety—Unmatched Among Emperors

According to A General History of the Qing Dynasty: The Daoguang Reign, published in 2002 by the Forbidden City Press:

“The Daoguang Emperor strictly observed ritual norms and vigorously promoted filial piety. He practiced it personally, serving the Empress Dowager with the utmost devotion for decades, paying daily respects with meticulous care, never neglecting her daily needs.

He himself valued frugality, and the empress and concubines lived similarly ‘tight lives,’ yet he endeavored to satisfy the Empress Dowager’s needs as fully as possible. The Empress Dowager, enticed by eunuchs, became addicted to opium. The Daoguang Emperor strictly prohibited opium use and punished offenders severely—except in the case of the Empress Dowager, whose usage he did not interfere with. He also instructed palace personnel to conceal news of the anti-opium campaign from her, allowing her to continue her habit.

On the Empress Dowager’s sixtieth birthday, the usually frugal emperor decided to celebrate lavishly. Officials across the empire submitted congratulatory memorials, taxes were reduced, and the entire realm rejoiced.

When the Empress Dowager died at the age of seventy-four, the Daoguang Emperor cut his hair and donned mourning garments, weeping incessantly and refusing food and drink. In the depths of winter, he slept on the bare ground beside her bier. Despite repeated entreaties from ministers and consorts to moderate his grief, he remained inconsolable. The Daoguang Emperor died on February 25, 1850—barely one month after the Empress Dowager—at the age of sixty-nine. It can be said that he died directly as a result of this bereavement.”

It should be noted that the Empress Dowager was not the Daoguang Emperor’s biological mother; his birth mother had died when he was only two years old.