Chapter 01: Reassessing the Great Kangxi Emperor

I. Assuming Power at 14

Emperor Kangxi (1654–1722) ascended the throne at the age of eight and assumed personal rule at 14. He reigned for 61 years, with 54 years of personal governance, making him the longest-reigning emperor in Chinese history. In the 17th century, Emperor Kangxi was the most powerful emperor in the world. In the early 15th century, during the Ming Dynasty, Zheng He’s fleet made seven voyages to the Western Seas, reaching Africa—80 years before Columbus discovered the New World. It was not until the 16th century that Magellan completed the first circumnavigation of the globe after three years of maritime exploration.

With the Age of Discovery in the 16th century, Spain rose to prominence. In the 17th century, France defeated Spain, and Louis XIV became the dominant power in Europe. Meanwhile, in the East, China, under the Qing Dynasty following the Ming, remained the most powerful empire, with Emperor Kangxi and Emperor Qianlong at its peak.

However, due to geographical barriers and inconvenient transportation, the journey from Europe to China took half a year by sea and several months by land. Additionally, rampant piracy and frequent robberies on land routes created two separate worlds, making trade and exchange difficult and mutual influence limited. This led to the division of the Eastern and Western worlds, with Louis XIV dominating Europe and Kangxi ruling the East.

II. Suppressing the Three Feudatories

At the age of 14, Kangxi thwarted the powerful minister Oboi and began his personal rule in earnest. He promulgated the “Sixteen Sacred Maxims,” lightened taxes and corvée labor, allowed the people to recuperate, reformed taxation, dredged the Grand Canal, and promoted economic development. Simultaneously, he deployed troops on a large scale to suppress the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, launched three campaigns against Galdan, repelled invading Russian forces, and signed the Treaty of Nerchinsk, ensuring sovereignty over the Heilongjiang River region. Through the Penghu Naval Battle, he unified Taiwan. He established the “Duolun Alliance” to pacify Mongol tribes, replacing war with diplomacy, regulating relations among the Han, Mongols, and Tibetans, conferring titles on the Panchen Lama, and sending troops into Tibet.

In the 12th year of Kangxi’s reign (1673), Wu Sangui of Yunnan pretended to “request the withdrawal of his feudatory,” to which Kangxi agreed. Wu Sangui then raised the banner of “Opposing the Qing and Restoring the Ming.” Within a few months, the other two feudatories joined the revolt, and six and a half provinces—Yunnan, Guizhou, Hunan, Guangxi, Sichuan, and Fujian—fell, plunging the empire into crisis. Kangxi mobilized his forces, calmly and resolutely attacked Wu Sangui, isolated him, and waged a five-year campaign until Wu Sangui died of illness. His generals retreated to Yunnan and Guizhou, and the Qing army captured Kunming, finally suppressing the Three Feudatories after eight years.

III. The Three Kneels and Nine Kowtows to Confucius

Kangxi revered Confucianism, establishing the “Hall of Transmitting the Heart” to worship Confucius. He personally visited the Confucius Temple in Qufu and performed the three kneels and nine kowtows, regarding Confucianism as the foundation of governance. He initiated the “Eminent Scholars” examination, ordered the compilation of the Lifanyuan Statutes, and employed Western missionaries to study Western sciences. Under his rule, China entered an era of “peace and stability throughout the land,” laying the foundation for the century-long prosperity of the Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong periods. He is known as the “Emperor of a Millennium.”

IV. Repelling Russian Aggression

The Russian expeditionary forces repeatedly invaded the Heilongjiang River region of China, burning, killing, and plundering while encroaching on Chinese territory. In the 24th year of Kangxi’s reign (1685), Russia returned and reoccupied the city of Albazin. Kangxi ordered a counterattack, dispatching 2,000 Qing troops to surround the city and demand the Russians’ surrender. When the Russians refused, the Qing forces dug trenches to cut off their reinforcements. Of the 826 Russian soldiers, only 66 survived. As Albazin was on the verge of falling, Russian regent Sophia urgently requested Kangxi to lift the siege and sent envoys to negotiate the border. Kangxi allowed the remaining Russian troops to withdraw to Nerchinsk, and the two sides signed the Treaty of Nerchinsk, designating the Outer Khingan Mountains and the Argun River as the Sino-Russian border. The area north of the Heilongjiang River, south of the Outer Khingan Mountains, and east of the Ussuri River were recognized as Chinese territory, establishing the Sino-Russian border framework for over a century.

To the north, Mongolia was divided into three major groups: the Inner Mongols (South of the Gobi), the Khalkha Mongols (North of the Gobi), and the Oirat Mongols (West of the Gobi). Under the leadership of Galdan, the Oirat Mongols received support from Russia. In 1688 (the 27th year of Kangxi’s reign), Galdan led 30,000 cavalry from Ili eastward to attack the Khalkha Mongols. Hundreds of thousands of Khalkha people fled south, seeking protection from the Qing court. Kangxi ordered Galdan to withdraw his forces and return west, but Galdan arrogantly advanced south. Kangxi mobilized his troops and repeatedly defeated the Dzungar forces. In 1698 (the 36th year of Kangxi’s reign), Kangxi issued an edict for a personal expedition and decisively defeated the Dzungars. Galdan died after being abandoned by his followers, ending a decade of campaigns against him. After Galdan’s death, his successors, with Russian support, continuously attacked Qing outposts and even sent troops to invade Tibet. Kangxi promptly dispatched troops to Tibet to suppress the Dzungar forces and expel them from the region.

V. The Scientist Emperor

Kangxi was a lifelong learner, studying algebra, geometry, astronomy, and medicine with missionaries who came to China. He employed missionaries extensively and was known as the “Scientist Emperor.” He commissioned Jesuit missionaries to travel across the provinces to create the Kangxi Atlas, which was more accurate than European maps of the time. He also tasked missionaries with compiling the Kangxi Calendar, as well as works such as the Complete Collection of Ancient and Modern Books, the Complete Library of the Four Treasuries, and the Kangxi Dictionary.

Kangxi diligently studied European astronomy, mathematics, and geography, mastering the principles of geometry. He listened attentively, practiced repeatedly, and personally spent five to six months drawing maps. In the last decade of his reign, he selected a group of Manchu and Han youths to study under the Jesuits and compiled a series of works on mathematics, calendar studies, and music titled The Origins of Music and Calendars.

Kangxi also sent the missionary Joachim Bouvet to France to recruit scientists to come to China and bring precious gifts to Louis XIV.

VI. Kangxi’s Diligent Governance

Kangxi was diligent throughout his life. At dawn, ministers from various departments and courts would take their positions to report matters, discuss decisions, and make judgments. He often personally inspected regions outside the capital, famously making six southern tours, three eastern tours, one western tour, and hundreds of inspections of the capital region and Mongolia. He personally inspected the Yellow River and ordered the restoration of the Yongding River. During his tours, he instructed guards not to prevent people from approaching him, allowing him to interact closely with the common people.

Kangxi was majestic, well-built, and dignified in appearance. He was kind, steady, and proper in demeanor, moderate in eating and drinking, orderly in daily routines, and opposed to smoking. He maintained a calm and harmonious spirit and did not seek immortality. The Japanese referred to Emperor Kangxi as the “Sage of the Superior Nation.” The German philosopher Leibniz called him “an unprecedentedly great monarch.” The American book A Global History states, “The Qing Empire under Kangxi’s rule was the most powerful and prosperous country in the world.”

In his later years, Kangxi grew lax, stating, “There are many things that should not be scrutinized too deeply.” He appointed and deposed the crown prince twice, and the cause of his death remains unclear—whether it was poisoning or natural causes. Life has no perfect script, let alone for an emperor.