Chapter 12: Eisenhower’s Resolute Anti-Communism and the Beginning of the U.S.–Soviet Cold War (Part I)

World War II hero and supreme commander Dwight Eisenhower (1890–1969) was elected President of the United States in 1952 and served for eight years. Throughout his presidency he took a firm anti-communist stance, most notably by resolutely preventing Mao Zedong from attacking Taiwan. He adopted concrete measures to safeguard Taiwan’s security, and at the same time pursued a hardline anti-communist policy in the Middle East, implementing the well-known “Eisenhower Doctrine.” In his farewell address in 1961, he stated that the ultimate goal of the United States was to eliminate the communist threat for the sake of world peace and human welfare.

Eisenhower was a statesman who clearly perceived the expansionist ambitions of communism. His 1952 presidential campaign slogan was “Korea, Communism, and Corruption.” He openly opposed the 1945 Yalta Agreement between Roosevelt and Stalin, arguing that it violated the U.S. Constitution. He also opposed Truman’s weak policy toward Mao Zedong during the Korean War. Eisenhower’s political platform resonated strongly with the public, and he was elected president with a decisive 55 percent of the vote.

Eisenhower advocated a tough stance in Korea. During his presidential campaign, he promised to bring the Korean War to an honorable end. In late 1952, he visited Korea and, after discovering that Chinese Communist forces were constructing underground bunkers in Kaesong, warned that atomic weapons would be used if armistice negotiations failed. Stalin died in March 1953. Before his death, he had ordered Mao Zedong to agree to a ceasefire, but Mao demanded Soviet assistance in building military-industrial factories and access to atomic technology before agreeing. After Stalin’s death, Mao faced a resolute World War II commander and realized that prolonging the war would bring even greater hardship. In addition, Khrushchev generously satisfied Mao’s demands by agreeing to help build ninety military-industrial factories. Mao then backed down and signed the armistice agreement, bringing the Korean War to an end.

Truman, fearing that confronting the Soviet Union would trigger a Third World War, dismissed General Douglas MacArthur, who advocated a hardline policy against Mao Zedong, and sent him back to the United States. This decision provoked widespread public dissatisfaction. By 1952, Truman’s support within the Democratic Party had fallen to 36 percent, and among independent voters it plunged to 16 percent, making it impossible for him to seek reelection. He even offered to support Eisenhower’s presidential run and serve as his vice president, but Eisenhower refused.

After taking office in 1953, Eisenhower initially insisted on refusing to recognize the Yalta Agreement. However, Stalin’s death soon made him feel that non-recognition had lost practical significance. He then sought to reach agreements with the Soviet Union on the peaceful use of nuclear energy, but this failed to curb the nuclear arms race. Fearing Soviet invasion and communist expansion, Eisenhower not only developed reconnaissance satellites but also advanced the development of large intercontinental ballistic missiles to counter the Soviet Union and defend the United States.

In 1954, Mao Zedong shelled Kinmen, signaling an intention to attack Taiwan. Eisenhower firmly declared the U.S. commitment to Taiwan’s defense and signed the Sino–American Mutual Defense Treaty with Taiwan. Eisenhower considered several scenarios and prepared to use atomic weapons to counter a Communist Chinese invasion, even ordering related tests. These plans were later shelved when the CCP did not escalate the bombardment.

At the same time, in order to counter possible aggression and subversion by China and the Soviet Union, Eisenhower promoted the formation of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization in 1954. The United States joined with more than ten countries, including Thailand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Australia, the United Kingdom, and France. SEATO also functioned as an organization for economic cooperation.

In 1955, the United States also compelled the Soviet Red Army to withdraw from Austria. This demonstrated that American anti-communism was not merely rhetorical but involved concrete action, forming a global anti-communist alliance.

After Stalin’s death in 1953, de-Stalinization began in Eastern Europe. In Hungary, reformist leader Imre Nagy came to power and initiated the review of wrongful convictions. In 1956, Khrushchev’s secret speech denouncing Stalin intensified revolutionary sentiment in Hungary. On October 23, 1956, nearly 30,000 students and citizens gathered in demonstrations in the capital, shouting “Russians go home,” and cutting the communist emblem from the national flag. Government repression enraged the populace, turning the protests into an armed uprising. Some soldiers defected and joined the demonstrators, seizing the national radio station. That evening, the crowd tore down Stalin’s statue. The next day, Soviet tanks entered the capital, but the armed resistance continued. On October 25, Nagy announced the dissolution of the Communist Party and the establishment of a Workers’ Party. The Communist Party’s first secretary, Ernő Gerő, fled to the Soviet Union. The Hungarian army’s command structure collapsed and the military split. Civilians fought Soviet tanks with Molotov cocktails, and revolutionary committees sprang up across the country, taking over local governments.

The attitude of the United States had a decisive impact. In response to the Hungarian uprising, U.S. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles issued statements on October 27 and 28, declaring that Hungary was not considered a potential ally and that the United States would remain on the sidelines.

On October 29, the U.S. ambassador deliberately drew the Soviet leadership’s attention to this position. On October 28, Soviet troops withdrew from the Hungarian capital, achieving a ceasefire. On October 31, President Eisenhower reiterated Dulles’s statement, making clear that the United States would not intervene in Hungary’s turmoil. This effectively told Moscow that the United States would not send troops and that the Soviets were free to act as they wished. Reassured, Khrushchev decided on a full response. On October 31, the Soviet Union resolved to send troops back into Hungary, and Khrushchev immediately traveled to Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia to coordinate a comprehensive crackdown on Hungary.